It has become apparent that our textbook illustration of singular isolated organelles is obsolete. In reality, organelles form complex cooperative networks involving various types of organelles. Light microscopic and ultrastructural studies have revealed that mitochondria–endoplasmic reticulum (ER) contact sites (MERCSs) are abundant in various tissues and cell types. Indeed, MERCSs have been proposed to play critical roles in various biochemical and signaling functions such as Ca2+ homeostasis, lipid transfer, and regulation of organelle dynamics. While numerous proteins involved in these MERCS-dependent functions have been reported, how they coordinate and cooperate with each other has not yet been elucidated. In this review, we summarize the functions of mammalian proteins that localize at MERCSs and regulate their formation. We also discuss potential roles of the MERCS proteins in regulating multiple organelle contacts.
Materials and Methods Cell culture and transfectionHeLa S3 and HEK293T cells were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 1% penicillin-streptomycin. HEK293T cells were transfected with the use of the GeneJuice Transfection Reagent (Merck Millipore), whereas transfection of HeLa S3 cells with expression vectors was performed with Lipofectamine (Thermo Fisher Scientific).
25Viral RNA in the cytoplasm of mammalian host cells is recognized by retinoic acid-26 inducible protein-I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs), which localize to cytoplasmic stress 27 granules (SGs). Activated RLRs associate with the mitochondrial adaptor protein IPS-1, 28 which activates antiviral host defense mechanisms including type I interferon (IFN) 29 induction. It has remained unclear, however, how RLRs in SGs and IPS-1 in the 30 mitochondrial outer membrane associate physically and engage in information transfer. 31 Here we show that NUDT21, an RNA binding protein that regulates alternative 32 transcript polyadenylation, physically associates with IPS-1 and mediates its 33 localization to SGs in response to transfection with poly(I:C), a mimic of viral double-34 stranded RNA. We found that, despite its well-established function in the nucleus, a 35 fraction of NUDT21 localizes to mitochondria in resting cells and becomes localized to 36 SGs in response to poly(I:C) transfection. NUDT21 was also found to be required for 37 efficient type I IFN induction in response to viral infection. Our results together indicate 38 that NUDT21 links RLRs in SGs to mitochondrial IPS-1 and thereby activates host 39 defense responses to viral infection. 40 41 Introduction 42 The innate immune system provides the first line of defense against viral infection. The 43 initial step of this defense is detection of "non-self" cues known as pathogen-associated 44 molecular patterns (PAMPs) by specialized sensors, known as pattern recognition 45 receptors (PRRs), in host cells. Recognition of viral PAMPs by PRRs results in the 46 activation of a series of mechanisms to combat viral propagation. In vertebrates, 47 activation of PRRs induces the production of type I interferons (IFNs) such as IFN-α 48 and IFN-β and the subsequent expression of hundreds of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) 49 that play a major role in restriction of viral replication within infected cells (1-3). 50 Retinoic acid-inducible protein-I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs) are a family 51 of PRRs consisting of DEAD box-containing RNA helicases that recognize viral RNA 52 in the cytoplasm. Among RLRs, RIG-I recognizes RNA molecules containing a 5'-53 triphosphate group as well as relatively short (<100 bp) double-stranded RNAs 54 (dsRNAs), whereas melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5) recognizes 55 relatively long (>2 kb) dsRNAs, with both types of dsRNA being derived from a wide 56 range of RNA viruses (4-6). The binding of RLRs to such viral RNAs triggers their 57interaction with a key antiviral hub protein, IFN-β promoter stimulator-1 (IPS-1, also 58 known as MAVS, CARDIF, and VISA) (7-10). IPS-1 is anchored to the mitochondrial 59 outer membrane, and activated IPS-1 forms large prionlike aggregates on these 60 organelles (11) that in turn activate transcription factors such as interferon regulatory 61 factor 3 (IRF3), nuclear factor-κB, and activator protein-1, resulting in the expression 62 of type I IFNs (8,(12)(13)(14)(15)(16). The pivotal role...
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