Posttranslational modification of proteins by ubiquitin (Ub), i.e., ubiquitination, mediates a variety of cellular processes, including protein homeostasis, cell cycle, DNA repair, and viral infections. Understanding the molecular mechanism of ubiquitination in these events is the basis for unraveling its precise role in health and disease. However, the inherent complexity of Ub signaling due to the high atomic complexity of Ub conjugates, where Ub is attached to other Ub molecules and to protein substrates in various forms, imposes a major challenge for these studies. In this regard, the enzymatic approaches employed for the preparation of important Ub conjugates have severe limitations to deliver them in high homogeneity and in adequate amounts for the desired study. Recent developments in the area of chemical synthesis and semisynthesis of proteins offer great solutions to the enzymatic limitations and enabling the preparation of various Ub conjugates with precise control over the atomic structure. These conjugates significantly contribute to deciphering Ub signaling at the molecular level, and with the synthetic tools in hand, chemical biologists have become key players in efforts toward understanding the complexity of the Ub code. In this Perspective, we highlight the key contributions of these synthetic approaches and how the development of novel Ub-based reagents is greatly assisting in uncovering unknown aspects of Ub signaling. We also discuss future aspirations to address unresolved questions in this exciting area of research.

A promising approach in cancer therapy is to find ligands that directly bind ubiquitin (Ub) chains. However, finding molecules capable of tightly and specifically binding Ub chains is challenging given the range of Ub polymer lengths and linkages and their subtle structural differences. Here, we use total chemical synthesis of proteins to generate highly homogenous Ub chains for screening against trillion-member macrocyclic peptide libraries (RaPID system). De novo cyclic peptides were found that can bind tightly and specifically to K48-linked Ub chains, confirmed by NMR studies. These cyclic peptides protected K48-linked Ub chains from deubiquitinating enzymes and prevented proteasomal degradation of Ub-tagged proteins. The cyclic peptides could enter cells, inhibit growth and induce programmed cell death, opening new opportunities for therapeutic intervention. This highly synthetic approach, with both protein target generation and cyclic peptide discovery performed in vitro, will make other elaborate post-translationally modified targets accessible for drug discovery.

RNA-protein interfaces control key replication events during the HIV-1 lifecycle. The viral trans-activator of transcription (Tat) protein uses an archetypal ARM (arginine-rich motif) to recruit the host positive transcription elongation factor b (pTEFb) complex onto the viral trans-activation response (TAR) RNA, leading to activation of HIV transcription. Efforts to block this interaction have stimulated production of biologics designed to disrupt this essential RNA-protein interface. Here, we present four co-crystal structures of lab-evolved TAR-binding proteins (TBPs) in complex with HIV-1 TAR. Our results reveal that high-affinity binding requires a distinct sequence and spacing of arginines within a specific β2-β3 hairpin loop that arose during selection. Although loops with as many as five arginines were analyzed, only three arginines could bind simultaneously with major-groove guanines. Amino acids that promote backbone interactions within the β2-β3 loop were also observed to be important for high-affinity interactions. Based on structural and affinity analyses, we designed two cyclic peptide mimics of the TAR-binding β2-β3 loop sequences present in two high-affinity TBPs (KD values of 4.2 ± 0.3 nM and 3.0 ± 0.3 nM). Our efforts yielded low molecular weight compounds that bind TAR with low micromolar affinity (KD values ranging from 3.6-22 μM). Significantly, one cyclic compound within this series blocked binding of the Tat-ARM peptide to TAR in solution assays, whereas its linear counterpart did not. Overall, this work provides insight into protein-mediated TAR recognition and lays the ground for the development of cyclic peptide inhibitors of a vital HIV-1 RNA-protein interaction.

We report the first total chemical synthesis of four different SUMO-2-Lys63-linked di-ubiquitin hybrid chains, in which the di-ubiquitin is linked to different lysines in SUMO.

The proteasome, the primary protease for ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis in eukaryotes, is usually found as a mixture of 30S, 26S, and 20S complexes. These complexes have common catalytic sites, which makes it challenging to determine their distinctive roles in intracellular proteolysis. Here, we chemically synthesize a panel of homogenous ubiquitinated proteins, and use them to compare 20S and 26S proteasomes with respect to substrate selection and peptide-product generation. We show that 20S proteasomes can degrade the ubiquitin tag along with the conjugated substrate. Ubiquitin remnants on branched peptide products identified by LC-MS/MS, and flexibility in the 20S gate observed by cryo-EM, reflect the ability of the 20S proteasome to proteolyze an isopeptide-linked ubiquitin-conjugate. Peptidomics identifies proteasome-trapped ubiquitin-derived peptides and peptides of potential 20S substrates in Hi20S cells, hypoxic cells, and human failing-heart. Moreover, elevated levels of 20S proteasomes appear to contribute to cell survival under stress associated with damaged proteins.

The chemical synthesis of a protein from four fragments or more applying native chemical ligation could be achieved stepwise, in one-pot, convergently, or on a solid support. With the increasing demands of applying protein synthesis to highly complex targets, examining these approaches becomes essential to achieve highly efficient synthesis. Different chemical synthetic strategies are compared for the preparation of the H2B protein having different post-translational modifications. The analogues include H2B that is ubiquitinated at Lys34, Lys120, glycosylated at Ser112, and doubly modified with ubiquitin and N-acetylglucosamine. This study demonstrates that the applied convergent strategy for the synthesis of most of these complex targets was better than the one-pot approach in terms of yield and purity. Some guidelines are offered for future synthetic endeavors of similar challenging proteins.

Careful removal of unwanted proteins is necessary for cell survival. The primary constitutive intracellular protease is the 26S proteasome complex, often found in equilibrium with its free catalytic subcomplex-the 20S core particle. Protein degradation by 26S is tightly regulated by prior ubiquitination of substrates, whereas 20S is amenable to substrates with an unstructured segment. Differentiating their contributions to intracellular proteolysis is challenging due to their common catalytic sites. Here, by chemically synthesizing a synoptic set of homogenous ubiquitinated proteins, we ascribe signature features to 20S function and demonstrate a unique property: degrading the ubiquitin-tag along with the target protein. Cryo-EM confirms that a ubiquitinated substrate can induce asymmetric conformational changes to 20S. Mass-spectrometry of intracellular peptidome under hypoxia and in human failing heart identifies the signature properties of 20S in cells. Moreover, the ability of 20S proteasome to clear toxic proteins rapidly, contributes to better survival under these conditions.

Various hypotheses have been proposed regarding how chain length, linkage type, position on substrate, and susceptibility to deubiquitinases (DUBs) affect processing of different substrates by proteasome. Here we report a new strategy for the chemical synthesis of ubiquitinated proteins to generate a set of well-defined conjugates bearing an oxime bond between the chain and the substrate. We confirmed that this isopeptide replacement is resistant to DUBs and to shaving by proteasome. Analyzing products generated by proteasomes ranked how chain length governed degradation outcome. Our results support that (1) the cleavage of the proximal isopeptide bond is not a prerequisite for proteasomal degradation, (2) by overcoming trimming at the proteasome, tetraUb is a fundamentally different signal than shorter chains, and (3) the tetra-ubiquitin chain can be degraded with the substrate. Together these results highlight the usefulness of chemistry to dissect the contribution of proteasome-associated DUBs and the complexity of the degradation process.