Spectra of the differential tunneling conductivity for ultrathin lead films grown on Si(111)7 × 7 single crystals with a thickness from 9 to 50 monolayers have been studied by low-temperature scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy. The presence of local maxima of the tunneling conductivity is typical for such systems. The energies of maxima of the differential conductivity are determined by the spectrum of quantum-confined states of electrons in a metallic layer and, consequently, the local thickness of the layer. It has been shown that features of the microstructure of substrates, such as steps of monatomic height, structural defects, and inclusions of other materials covered with a lead layer, can be visualized by bias-modulation scanning tunneling spectroscopy.
The performance of existing or nearly completed detectors for particle identification by using the relativistic rise of energy loss will be discussed.Detailed analysis of systematic errors leads finally to large detector systems approaching the ultimate resolution as measured in small test devices.New methods for extracting the information from the counter with the potential of better particle separation than standard dE/dx will be presented. It includes very fine sampling, 6-ray clipping, and cluster counting .
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