Background: Parasite fatty acid synthesis is an attractive drug target but complex and poorly understood. Results: We delineate the molecular activity of two pathways in Toxoplasma combining metabolomic and genetic analyses. Conclusion:The apicoplast is a significant source of fatty acids, and its products are further modified in the parasite endoplasmic reticulum. Significance: We define the metabolic host-parasite relationship with molecular resolution in intracellular parasites.

Fatty acylation of cysteine residues provides spatial and temporal control of protein function in cells and regulates important biological pathways in eukaryotes. Although recent methods have improved the detection and proteomic analysis of cysteine fatty (S-fatty) acylated proteins, understanding how specific sites and quantitative levels of this posttranslational modification modulate cellular pathways are still challenging. To analyze the endogenous levels of protein S-fatty acylation in cells, we developed a mass-tag labeling method based on hydroxylamine-sensitivity of thioesters and selective maleimide-modification of cysteines, termed acyl-PEG exchange (APE). We demonstrate that APE enables sensitive detection of protein S-acylation levels and is broadly applicable to different classes of S-palmitoylated membrane proteins. Using APE, we show that endogenous interferoninduced transmembrane protein 3 is S-fatty acylated on three cysteine residues and site-specific modification of highly conserved cysteines are crucial for the antiviral activity of this IFN-stimulated immune effector. APE therefore provides a general and sensitive method for analyzing the endogenous levels of protein S-fatty acylation and should facilitate quantitative studies of this regulated and dynamic lipid modification in biological systems.fatty-acylation | palmitoylation | PEGylation | influenza virus | IFITM3 P rotein S-fatty acylation describes the covalent attachment of long-chain fatty acids to cysteine (Cys) residues through a thioester bond, which alters the hydrophobicity of diverse proteins and regulates their stability, trafficking, and activity in eukaryotic cells ( Fig. 1A) (1, 2). Cys residues are predominately acylated with palmitic acid (S-palmitoylation), but can also be modified with longer chain and unsaturated fatty acids, thus more generally described as S-fatty acylation (1, 3, 4). The fatty-acylation of Cys residues is regulated by the DHHC-family of protein acyltransferases (5, 6) and different classes of thioesterases (7,8) that are associated with a variety of important physiological pathways and diseases (1). Determining the precise levels of protein S-fatty acylation is therefore crucial for understanding how this dynamic lipid modification is regulated and quantitatively controls specific cellular pathways.Recent methods to detect and enrich S-fatty acylated proteins have facilitated the characterization of key regulatory mechanisms and discovery of new S-fatty acylated proteins (1, 2). For example, alkyne-modified fatty acid chemical reporters have enabled the fluorescent detection and enrichment of metabolically labeled proteins using bioorthogonal ligation methods (Fig. S1A) (9, 10). Alternatively, exploitation of thioester sensitivity to hydroxylamine (NH 2 OH) has enabled selective capture and analysis of S-acylated proteins by acyl-biotin exchange (ABE) (Fig. S1B) (11, 12) or acyl-resin capture (acyl-RAC) (Fig. S1C) (13). However, all of these methods do not readily reveal the fraction of unmodified...

Lipid metabolism is of crucial importance for pathogens. Lipids serve as cellular building blocks, signalling molecules, energy stores, posttranslational modifiers, and pathogenesis factors. Parasites rely on a complex system of uptake and synthesis mechanisms to satisfy their lipid needs. The parameters of this system change dramatically as the parasite transits through the various stages of its life cycle. Here we discuss the tremendous recent advances that have been made in the understanding of the synthesis and uptake pathways for fatty acids and phospholipids in apicomplexan and kinetoplastid parasites, including Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Cryptosporidium, Trypanosoma and Leishmania. Lipid synthesis differs in significant ways between parasites from both phyla and the human host. Parasites have acquired novel pathways through endosymbiosis, as in the case of the apicoplast, have dramatically reshaped substrate and product profiles, and have evolved specialized lipids to interact with or manipulate the host. These differences potentially provide opportunities for drug development. We outline the lipid pathways for key species in detail as they progress through the developmental cycle and highlight those that are of particular importance to the biology of the pathogens and/or are the most promising targets for parasite-specific treatment.

Intracellular pathogens have complex metabolic interactions with their host cells to ensure a steady supply of energy and anabolic building blocks for rapid growth. Here we use the obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii to probe this interaction for isoprenoids, abundant lipidic compounds essential to many cellular processes including signaling, trafficking, energy metabolism, and protein translation. Synthesis of precursors for isoprenoids in Apicomplexa occurs in the apicoplast and is essential. To synthesize longer isoprenoids from these precursors, T. gondii expresses a bifunctional farnesyl diphosphate/geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (TgFPPS). In this work we construct and characterize T. gondii null mutants for this enzyme. Surprisingly, these mutants have only a mild growth phenotype and an isoprenoid composition similar to wild type parasites. However, when extracellular, the loss of the enzyme becomes phenotypically apparent. This strongly suggests that intracellular parasite salvage FPP and/or geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) from the host. We test this hypothesis using inhibitors of host cell isoprenoid synthesis. Mammals use the mevalonate pathway, which is susceptible to statins. We document strong synergy between statin treatment and pharmacological or genetic interference with the parasite isoprenoid pathway. Mice can be cured with atorvastatin (Lipitor) from a lethal infection with the TgFPPs mutant. We propose a double-hit strategy combining inhibitors of host and parasite pathways as a novel therapeutic approach against Apicomplexan parasites.

SUMMARY Apicomplexa are parasitic protozoa that cause important human diseases including malaria, cryptosporidiosis and toxoplasmosis. The replication of these parasites within their target host cell is dependent on both salvage as well as de novo synthesis of fatty acids. In T. gondii, fatty acid synthesis via the apicoplast-localized FASII is essential for pathogenesis, while the role of two other fatty acid biosynthetic complexes remains unclear. Here we demonstrate that the ER-localized fatty acid elongation (ELO) is essential for parasite growth. Conditional knock-down of the non-redundant hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydratase and enoyl-CoA reductase enzymes in the ELO pathway severely repressed intracellular parasite growth. 13C-glucose and 13C-acetate labeling and comprehensive lipidomic analyses of these mutants showed a selective defect in synthesis of unsaturated long and very long chain fatty acids (LCFAs and VLCFAs) and depletion of phosphatidylinositol and phosphatidylethanolamine species containing unsaturated LCFAs and VLCFAs. This requirement for ELO pathway was by-passed by supplementing the media with specific fatty acids, indicating active, but inefficient import of host fatty acids. Our experiments highlight a gap between the fatty acid needs of the parasite and availability of specific fatty acids in the host cell that the parasite has to close using a dedicated synthesis and modification pathway.