Macrophages are heterogeneous and their phenotype and functions are regulated by the surrounding micro-environment. Macrophages commonly exist in two distinct subsets: 1) Classically activated or M1 macrophages, which are pro-inflammatory and polarized by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) either alone or in association with Th1 cytokines such as IFN-γ, GM-CSF, and produce pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, IL-12, IL-23, and TNF-α; and 2) Alternatively activated or M2 macrophages, which are anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory and polarized by Th2 cytokines such as IL-4 and IL-13 and produce anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10 and TGF-β. M1 and M2 macrophages have different functions and transcriptional profiles. They have unique abilities by destroying pathogens or repair the inflammation-associated injury. It is known that M1/M2 macrophage balance polarization governs the fate of an organ in inflammation or injury. When the infection or inflammation is severe enough to affect an organ, macrophages first exhibit the M1 phenotype to release TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-12, and IL-23 against the stimulus. But, if M1 phase continues, it can cause tissue damage. Therefore, M2 macrophages secrete high amounts of IL-10 and TGF-β to suppress the inflammation, contribute to tissue repair, remodeling, vasculogenesis, and retain homeostasis. In this review, we first discuss the basic biology of macrophages including origin, differentiation and activation, tissue distribution, plasticity and polarization, migration, antigen presentation capacity, cytokine and chemokine production, metabolism, and involvement of microRNAs in macrophage polarization and function. Secondly, we discuss the protective and pathogenic role of the macrophage subsets in normal and pathological pregnancy, anti-microbial defense, anti-tumor immunity, metabolic disease and obesity, asthma and allergy, atherosclerosis, fibrosis, wound healing, and autoimmunity.

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Background and Aim: In recent years, vitamin D deficiency has become a major worldwide problem that can exert harmful effects. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the sex-and age-related prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in people from Mashhad, northeastern Iran. Methods: In this cross-sectional study conducted over a period of 1 year (2015)(2016), 7504 subjects who referred to Mashhad medical centers were randomly enrolled in the study. The study population was divided into four groups based on sex and age, as following: group 1, 6 to 18 years; group 2, 19 to 35 years; group 3, 36 to 50 years; and group 4, 51 to 65 years. Since vitamin D levels <10, 10 to 20, and 20 to 30 ng/mL are considered as severe, moderate, and mild deficiency, respectively, we used these criteria for categorizing our population.Results: Of the total population in our study, 65.26% (4902; 57.81% of men and 72.07% of women) showed some degree of vitamin D deficiency. In addition, we found that vitamin D deficiency was common in all age groups (6-18, 19-35, 36-50, and 51-65 years), and more common in women (58.5%, 80.12%, 63.83%, and 88.44%, respectively) than men (41.66%, 59.86%, 44.97%, and 84.75%, respectively).Conclusion: Vitamin D deficiency is a major health problem in all age groups and is more common in women. This information would help to provide a progressive prevention program to maintain health and manage some of the vitamin-related disorders and diseases that especially affect women. K E Y W O R D S immune response, Mashhad, vitamin D, vitamin D deficiency

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Background and Aims Iron deficiency anemia is one of the most common nutritional deficiencies and public health around the world. The growing Children are one of groups that are at high risk for this problem. Iron deficiency anemia can cause mental, motor or behavior problems. So early diagnosis and treatment can prevent great side effects. One of the diagnosis means is measuring of soluble tranferrin receptor level (sTfR) in serum because level of this receptor increase in result of iron depletion in iron deficiency but has no change in other. Methods and materials: This was a case control study included 64 children with iron deficiency anemia (IDA) and healthy subjects. The study conducted, in 2008-2010 in Children Medical Center. Blood samples collected from every patient in case and control groups and Hb, MCV, Fe, Ferritin, TIBC and sTfR measured and compared in the groups. Results Compared to the control group, serum sTfR mean level was significantly higher in children with IDA than control group (1.87 vs. 1.06 µg/ml, P value = 0.002). sTfR showed negative correlations with Hb(r=-0.629, p<0.001), MCV (r=-0.649, p<0.001) and serum Ferritin (r=-0.224, p=0.053), although it was not significant for Ferritin. There was no significant differences between cases and controls in sTfR mean level with regard to gender and age categories. (P>0.05). Conclusions This study shows sTfR level can be an appropriate biomarker for diagnosis of IDA, particularly in patient with IDA coexisting with inflammation.