The aim of this experiment was to localize the mRNA and protein of ghrelin and its active receptor, growth hormone secretagogue 1A (GHS-R1A), within the reproductive tract of dairy cattle. Ghrelin is an orexigenic hormone that has been identified as a potent regulator of energy homeostasis. Recent evidence suggests that ghrelin may also serve as a metabolic signal to the reproductive tract. Ghrelin and GHS-R1A have been identified in the reproductive tract of several species, including humans, mice, and rats. However, ghrelin and GHS-R1A expression have not been described within bovine reproductive tissues. Therefore, the ampulla, isthmus, uterine body, corpus luteum, and follicles were harvested from 3 Holstein heifers (15.91±0.07 mo of age) immediately following exsanguination. Duodenum and hypothalamus were collected as positive controls for ghrelin and GHS-R1A, respectively. Tissues were fixed in 10% formalin and embedded in paraffin for microscopy. Additional samples were stored at -80°C for detection of mRNA. Ghrelin and GHS-R1A mRNA and protein were observed in all tissue types within the reproductive tract of dairy heifers; however, expression appeared to be cell specific. Furthermore, ghrelin protein appeared to be localized to the cytoplasm, whereas GHS-R1A protein was found on the plasma membrane. Within the reproductive tissues, ghrelin mRNA and protein were most abundantly expressed in the ampulla of the oviduct. Concentrations of GHS-R1A were lower than those of ghrelin but differed between tissues. This is one of the first studies to provide molecular evidence for the presence of ghrelin and GHS-R1A within the entire reproductive tract. However, implications for fertility remain to be determined.

Two experiments were performed to determine the effects of heat stress (HS) and insulin on hepatic mRNA abundance of enzymes responsible for metabolizing progesterone [cytochrome P450 2C and 3A (CYP2C and CYP3A)]. To distinguish the direct effects of HS from decreased dry matter intake, cohorts were pair fed (PF) in thermoneutral conditions to match the intake of the HS cows during both experiments. In the first experiment, multiparous late-lactation Holstein cows (n=12, 305±33 d in milk) housed in climate-controlled chambers were subjected to 2 experimental periods: (1) thermoneutral (TN) conditions (18°C, 20% humidity) with ad libitum intake (TN and well fed) for 9 d; and (2) either HS conditions (cyclical temperature 31-40°C, 20% humidity) fed for ad libitum intake (n=6), or TN conditions and PF to match the HS animal (n=6) for 9 d. To evaluate hepatic gene expression during experiment 1, biopsies were obtained at the end of each period. In the second experiment, multiparous mid-lactation Holstein cows (n=12, 136±8 DIM) were housed and fed in conditions similar to those described for the first experiment. Liver biopsies were obtained immediately before and after an insulin tolerance test administered on d 6 of each period. No effects of exogenous insulin were observed on any of the tested variables, nor were there interactions between environment (TN/HS or well fed/PF) and insulin administration. Heat stress decreased hepatic CYP2C expression during both experiments. The relative abundance of CYP3A was not affected by environmental conditions in the late-lactation cows (first experiment), but was reduced by HS in the mid-lactation cows (second experiment). Interestingly, during experiment 2, hepatic CYP3A expression also decreased during PF. These results suggest that HS reduces the capacity of the liver to metabolize progesterone through distinct effects on CYP2C and CYP3A, and that the effects appear to vary based upon stage of lactation. Ultimately, HS may affect reproductive outcomes by reducing the abundance of the enzymes responsible for the breakdown of progesterone. This reduction could serve as a beneficial adaptation for rescuing early embryos or may be detrimental, as it affects feedback mechanisms necessary for proper cyclicity.

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Objectives of this study were to measure both daily and periprandial plasma ghrelin concentrations of postpubertal Holstein heifers during prolonged undernutrition. Following an acclimation period, Holstein heifers [n=10; 339.5 ± 8.6 kg of body weight (BW)] were fed ad libitum [well fed (WF); n=5] or restricted to 50% of ad libitum intake [underfed (UF); n=5) for 8 wk. Body condition scores (BCS) were recorded at the beginning and end of the treatment period, and weekly measurements of BW, plasma ghrelin, progesterone, and nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) concentrations were obtained. Ovarian follicular and luteal structures were measured twice weekly via transrectal ultrasonography. Plasma ghrelin concentrations were also measured during a periprandial window bleed conducted at the end of the experiment. During the window bleed, samples were collected every 15 min between 0500 and 0900 h, with feed offered at 0700 h. Underfed heifers lost BW and BCS, whereas WF heifers gained weight and either increased or maintained BCS. Chronic underfeeding increased circulating ghrelin and NEFA concentrations. By wk 4 of the treatment period, circulating ghrelin concentrations of the UF heifers reached a plateau. Periprandial fluctuations in ghrelin concentrations were apparent as plasma ghrelin concentrations changed over time. Overall differences in periprandial plasma ghrelin concentrations were primarily due to prefeeding effects of plane of nutrition. Plasma ghrelin concentrations and change in BCS were negatively correlated such that heifers that lost the most BCS had the highest concentrations of circulating ghrelin. Two of the 5 UF heifers became anestrus by wk 3 of the treatment period. Despite being of similar age, the heifers that became anestrus had lower BW and plasma ghrelin concentrations than the UF heifers that continued to ovulate. In the current experiment, long-term undernutrition elicited ghrelin responses similar to those reported for shorter durations of nutrient restriction in cattle and other ruminants. These results demonstrate that plane of nutrition is a chronic regulator of plasma ghrelin concentrations, and that these concentrations can be experimentally manipulated in postpubertal heifers for up to 8 wk with no evidence of an adaptive response.