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Instances of sustained cooperative behaviour in humans can be considered as an adaptive strategy that enhances the probability of reaching a goal. This study investigates psychophysiological responses to cooperation in healthy subjects, while considering outcome and gender as potential moderators of these responses. Salivary cortisol levels (Csal), heart rate (HR), skin conductance level (SCL), nonspecific skin conductance responses (NSRs), and mood states were measured at different points before, during and after a Lego house-building task in undergraduate men (n = 22) and women (n = 20). Once the task was finished, the experimenter informed the participants about the outcome obtained (positive or negative). Cooperation produces an increase in HR, SCL, and NSR responses. When the outcome is positive it produces a gradual diminution in Csal levels, but when the outcome is negative there is a significant increase in Csal levels after the task followed by a progressive decrease. Men with positive outcomes showed a lower area under curve (AUC) in Csal than women with a negative outcome. Men had more NSR responses in all periods other than the rest period. Several mood states are differently affected by the combined effect of outcome and gender. Our laboratory results can be generalized to other situations in which negotiation, mediation, and cooperative strategies are relevant for taking decisions and/or solving problems. The authors wish to thank Dr Tinca Polderman and John Rawlins for the revision of the English text. This study was supported by the Ministry of Business, Research and Science of the Valencia Regional Government (GVPRE/2008/260, GVACOMP/2010/250, and PROMETEO/2011/048) and the Ministry of Science and Education of the Spanish Government (PSI2008-04408/PSIC).

Providing care for people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is particularly stressful and frequently associated with disturbances in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis of the caregiver. This study examined whether the stress response is modulated by factors such as age of the care recipient and number of years spent by the caregiver in providing care for the ASD individual. Caregivers of children (n = 15), adolescents (n = 12), and adults (n = 11) with ASD were exposed to two episodes of acute psychosocial stressor in a 1 day session. Salivary cortisol samples were obtained before, during, and after the stressor episodes. Psychological characteristics (states of anxiety, anger, and mood) were measured before and after the stressor episodes. The characteristics of the ASD individuals (age, degree of autism, global activity, and level of autonomy) were also registered. A difference in stress response was found when caregivers of ASD children were compared with those of ASD adolescents and adults, ε = 0.25, F(2.24,53.65) = 5.82, p < 0.004; ε = 0.23 and F(2.11,48.43) = 4.88, p < 0.01, respectively. Thus, upon acute-stressor exposure, caregivers of ASD individuals presented a stress response that correlated with the age of the patient (the older the patient, the lower the cortisol response). Additional factors, such as number of years spent providing care and level of autonomy of the recipient, also significantly contributed to the stress response. Together, the results demonstrate that recipient characteristics contribute to the detection of high-risk individuals within a caregiver population.

Taking care of offspring during a prolonged period of time is probably one of the most stressful life experiences for parents. The present study compares the cortisol awakening response (CAR) in 38 long-term caregivers (mothers and fathers of schizophrenic relatives) with a control group of 32 non-caregivers. Factors such as general stress, caregiver burden, patient severity, and institutionalization were studied. Although a blunted CAR was observed in caregivers in comparison with controls, this difference was not significant. Among caregivers, the absence of institutionalization for the patient is associated with a lack of CAR in caregivers in comparison with caregivers of institutionally supported patients. General stress, caregiver burden, and patient severity themselves did not favor significant changes in CAR. CAR shows greater sensitivity to institutional support than patient severity and perceived stress. Further research is needed to explain the impact of these factors on health and the psychological factors involved.