In both humans and other species, many decisions involve risk, which is defined as uncertainty about whether an investment will result in a cost or benefit (Yates & Stone, 1992). Often, risky decisions in the animal kingdom include those involving resources, encompassing decisions about how far to travel for food or water (Smallwood, 1996). This is a form of economic risk, as animals must minimize the cost of foraging and optimize resource acquisition when a positive outcome is not guaranteed. Social interactions can also result in costs and benefits, but here, the other individual often determines the outcome. Consequently, many social interactions are characterized by uncertainty (Bohnet, Greig, Herrmann,
In cooperative hunting, a carcass cannot be divided equally, and hunts may be unsuccessful. We studied how chimpanzees respond to these two variables, working for unequal rewards and no rewards, which have been rarely included in experimental cooperative tasks. We presented chimpanzees with a task requiring three chimpanzees to work together and varied the reward structure in two separate experiments. In experiment 1, two individuals received more rewards than the third, making the outcome unequal. We wanted to know if cooperation would continue or break down, and what mechanisms might maintain performance. Experiment 2 used equal rewards, but this time one or more locations were left unbaited on a proportion of trials. Thus, there was the chance of individuals working to receive nothing. In experiment 1, the chimpanzees worked at a high rate, tolerating the unequal outcomes, with rank appearing to determine who got access to the higher value locations. However, equal outcomes (used as a control) enhanced cooperative performance, most likely through motivational processes rather than the absence of inequity aversion. In experiment 2, performance dropped off dramatically when the chimpanzees were not rewarded on every trial. Their strategy was irrational as donating effort would have led to more rewards in the long run for each individual. Our results lead to a hierarchy of performances by condition with equity > inequity > donating effort. Chimpanzees therefore tolerate mild inequity, but cannot tolerate receiving nothing when others are rewarded.
Discussion The quantitative carbon dioxide analyser is one of the most valuable monitors we have in clincial anaesthesia. Unfortunately, because of their size and cost, these monitors are not available in all areas where tracheal intuhation is carried out. Few hospitals can supply every operating room, emergency room or "crash cart" with one of these devices, and they are not practical for use by medical personnel in "field" settings or by paramedics in their work environment. The pH-sensitive chemical indicator, on the other hand, is small, inexpensive and easy to use, and would be ideal for all the above situations. It is not a replacement for the quantitative carbon dioxide analyser, but if used in conjunction with the usual methods of detecting correct tube placement, it should reduce the number of undiagnosed oesophagcal intubations. References t PotlardBJ, Juntas F. Accidental intubatian of the oesophagus.
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