Summary.Prostaglandins act through specific receptors to stimulate cyclic AMP formation which inhibits platelet activation and relaxes vascular smooth muscle. We have used RT-PCR combined with Southern blot analysis to determine the subtypes of prostaglandin receptor on platelets. Platelets expressed the EP4 rather than the EP2 prostaglandin EP receptor subtype, whereas vascular smooth muscle cells predominantly expressed the EP2 receptor. The IP receptor, which binds prostacyclin and couples to stimulation of adenylyl cyclase, and three isoforms of the inhibitory EP3 receptor were equally expressed in platelets, HEL cells and umbilical artery smooth muscle cells. The EP3-II isoform showed variation in level of expression among the three cell types. As a positive control for the presence of platelet RNA, PCR was performed using primers specific for the alpha chain of the platelet membrane glycoprotein Ib. As a negative control for the absence of T and B cell contamination in the platelet RNA, PCR was performed using primers specific for the cell specific cluster determinants CD2 (a T-cell marker) and CD20 (a B-cell marker). The finding that platelets express both stimulatory and inhibitory prostaglandin receptors provides confirmation of a homeostatic model of regulation of platelet adenylyl cyclase previously proposed.

Platelets contain two cAMP phosphodiesterases (PDEs) which regulate intracellular cAMP levels, cGMP-inhibited cAMP PDE (PDE3A) and cGMP-stimulated PDE (PDE2A). Using the PDE3 inhibitor, milrinone and the PDE2 inhibitor, erythro-9-(2-hydroxyl-3-nonyl)adenine (EHNA), we have explored the contribution of each PDE to the regulation of platelet function. Inhibition of PDE2 resulted in higher levels of intracellular cAMP than inhibition of PDE3A suggesting this PDE may be the more important regulator of cAMP in human platelets. However, a concentration-dependent inhibition of agonist-induced aggregation was observed with milrinone while little effect was seen with EHNA. In addition, we observed a concentration-dependent inhibition in the increase of intracellular Ca 2+ with PDE3 inhibition and significantly less with PDE2 inhibition. PDE3 inhibition also resulted in a concentration-dependent increase in cAMP-mediated phosphorylation of the vasodilator-stimulated phospho-protein (VASP) whereas there was no significant increase with PDE2 inhibition. In each of these experiments, synergism was noted with the combination of milrinone and EHNA. These results suggest that cAMP pools may be localized and the various PDEs regulate specific pools. These data also suggest that inhibitors of PDE3A may be more effective antiplatelet agents.

Protein C, a potent vitamin K-dependent protein activated by an endothelial cell cofactor, thrombomodulin, has anticoagulant and profibrinolytic activity. Free protein S, a cofactor for protein C, potentiates protein C activity at the endothelial cell surface. Pulmonary thromboemboli are a consistent finding in adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). To determine if protein S or protein C were affected by widespread endothelial cell damage in ARDS, we measured bound and free protein S levels and protein C antigenic and functional levels in 18 patients with acute lung injury, 6 critically ill patients without lung history, and 22 normal subjects. Free (PS:F) and bound (PS:Ag) protein S and protein C antigen (PC:Ag) levels were measured using an enzyme-linked immunoassay and protein C function (PC:Fn) by measuring its anticoagulant activity. We found a significant decrease in bound and free protein S levels of both patient groups in comparison to normal and a shift toward the inactive, bound protein S form. In addition, a significant decrease in free protein S compared to bound protein S in both patient groups was observed. While both PC:Ag and PC:Fn were significantly reduced compared to normal, the PC:Fn was significantly and severely decreased out of proportion to the PC:Ag in both patient groups. There was no difference between those with and without lung injury for both protein S and protein C. Analyzed according to etiology of lung injury, there was no difference in the bound and free protein S, nor in PC:Ag and PC:Fn levels between patients with sepsis and trauma. However, there were significant decreases in both protein S and protein C levels compared with normal subjects. Levels of both PS and PC levels in patients who survived did not differ from those who died. In summary, our data show that both protein S and C are markedly deranged in acutely ill patients who suffered from either sepsis or trauma, and these changes are independent of lung injury. The marked reductions in functional activity of PS and PC may be contributing factors to the thromboembolic complications often observed in these patients.

Summary. The function of lymphocytes, like platelets, has been shown to be inhibited by agents which increase intracellular cyclic AMP. Two high-affinity cAMP phosphodiesterases (PDEs), the cyclic GMP-inhibited cAMP phosphodiesterase, PDE3, and the cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase PDE4, are known to regulate cAMP concentration in haemopoietic cells by degrading cAMP to AMP. We characterized the relative contribution of the two PDEs to total lymphocyte PDE activity. We then determined which of the different gene products, PDE3A, typical of myocardium and platelets, or PDE3B, typical of adipocytes, were present in lymphocytes. The PDE3-specific inhibitor, milrinone, and the PDE4 inhibitor, rolipram, suppressed hydrolysis by 70% and 30% respectively, which indicated that both PDE4 and PDE3were present, and that PDE3 was predominant. RT-PCR yields the expected size fragment for the primer pair PDE3B and not for PDE3A. The DNA sequence obtained had > 95% identity with PDE3B. PDE3B appears to be the major cAMP PDE in lymphocytes. In contrast to human platelets, human lymphocytes appear to contain the PDE3B subtype. Since PDE3B in adipocytes is subject to hormonal regulation, lymphocytes may be similarly modulated. Understanding the role of cAMP regulation and the involvement of cAMP in lymphocyte function may have important implications in drug development.Keywords: phosphodiesterase, lymphocytes, cyclic AMP, milrinone, rolipram.Cyclic AMP, an important second messenger in cells, is maintained at steady state levels as a result of formation and destruction by adenylate cyclase and cAMP phosphodiesterases (PDEs) respectively. Currently, the group of PDEs isolated from mammalian tissues is divided into at least seven distinct classes, based on a variety of biochemical characteristics including their substrate specificity, response to selective inhibitors, mode of regulation and kinetic characteristics (Beavo et al, 1994). These classes appear to be coded for by related but distinct genes yet they share a conserved region of about 250 amino acids at the C terminal end (Charbonneau, 1990). This region demonstrates a homology of about 28-40% between classes and contains the catalytic domain (Charbonneau, 1990). The N terminal region of each class appears to be distinct and may contain the regulatory domain. Each class has at least two isotypes coded for by different genes or the product of differential mRNA splicing. Lymphocytes contain two high-affinity cAMP PDEs, the cyclic GMP-inhibited cAMP phosphodiesterase or PDE3 and the cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase or PDE 4 (Robicsek et al, 1991). In monocytes and neutrophils PDE4 predominates (Wright et al, 1990) whereas in platelets most of PDE activity is PDE3A (Degerman et al, 1994;Cheung et al, 1996). Two rat and two human enzymes have been cloned from heart (PDE3A) (Meacci et al, 1992) and adipocyte (PDE3B) (Taira et al, 1993), and their results show that the PDE3 class appears to have a conserved region of 44 amino acids at the C terminal end distinct from the catalytic re...