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Summary I. INTRODUCTION – A HYPOTHESIS 374 II. EFFECTS OF CALCIUM ON PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES 376 1. The chemical uniqueness of calcium 376 (a) Cytotoxicity 376 (b) Binding properties 376 (c) Stimulation/displacement potential 376 2. Calcium signaling and plant responses to environmental stress 377 (a) Control principles 377 (b) Carbohydrate metabolism 378 (c) Synthesis and function of membranes and cell walls 379 (d) Disease resistance and wound repair 380 (e) Cold tolerance 381 (f) Stomatal regulation 382 III. CALCIUM UPTAKE AND DISTRIBUTION AT THE WHOLE‐PLANT LEVEL 382 1. Uptake at the root‐soil interface 382 2. Transport and exchange in stems 384 3. Exchange of calcium by foliage 385 IV. ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES AND CALCIUM SUPPLY 387 1. Plant succession and soil acidification 387 2. Plant adaptations to nutrient deficiency 389 (a) Morphological adaptations 389 (b) Physiological adaptations 390 V. PLANT AND ECOSYSTEM RESPONSES TO HUMAN ALTERATIONS IN CALCIUM SUPPLY 391 1. Increased atmospheric inputs of acidity 391 (a) Reductions in soil cation pools 392 (b) Inhibition of calcium uptake and effects on root function 393 (c) Increased leaching of calcium from foliage 395 (d) Physiological indicators of altered forest function 397 (e) Wood chemistry, structure and function 402 2. Forest management 404 (a) Harvesting effects on nutrient supply 404 (b) Managing forest nutrient supply 405 VI. CONCLUSION 407 1. Whole‐tree perspectives 407 2. Ecosystem perspectives 408 VII. EVALUATION OF THE HYPOTHESIS 410 Acknowledgements 411 References 411 Summary Calcium occupies a unique position among plant nutrients both chemically and functionally. Its chemical properties allow it to exist in a wide range of binding states and to serve in both structural and messenger roles. Despite its importance in many plant processes, Ca mobility is low, making Ca uptake and distribution rate a limiting process for many key plant functions. Ca plays an essential role in regulating many physiological processes that influence both growth and responses to environmental stresses. Included among these are: water and solute movement, influenced through effects on membrane structure and stomatal function; cell division and cell wall synthesis; direct or signaling roles in systems involved in plant defense and repair of damage from biotic and abiotic stress; rates of respiratory metabolism and translocation; and structural chemistry and function of woody support tissues. Forest trees, because of their size and age capacity, have been examined for evidence of limitations imposed by the timing and level of Ca supply. Examination of Ca physiology and biogeochemical cycling for forested systems reveals many indications that Ca supply places important limitations on forest structure and function. These limitations are likely to be most significant with older trees, later successional stages, high levels of soil acidity and/or high canopy Ca leaching losses, or under conditions where plant competition is high or transpiration is limited by high humidity or lo...

The environmental costs and benefits of producing bioenergy crops can be measured both in terms of the relative effects on soil, water, and wildlife habitat quality of replacing alternate cropping systems with the designated bioenergy system, and in terms of the quality and amount of energy that is produced per unit of energy expended. While many forms of herbaceous and woody energy crops will likely contribute to future biofuels systems, The Department of Energy's Biofuels Feedstock Development Program ( B F D P ) , has chosen to focus its primary herbaceous crops research emphasis on a perennial grass species, switchgrass (Panicum virsatum) , as a bioenergy candidate. This choice was based on its high yields, high nutrient use efficiency, and wide geographic distribution, and also on its positive environmental attributes. The latter include its positive effects on soil quality and stability, its cover value for wildlife, and the lower inputs of energy, water, and agrochemicals required per unit of energy produced. A comparison of the energy budgets for corn, which is the primary current source of bioethanol, and switchgrass reveals that the efficiency of energy production for a perennial grass system can exceed that for an energy intensive annual row crop by as much as 15 times. In additions reductions in CO, emissions, tied to the energetic efficiency of producing transportation fuels and replacing non-renewable petrochemical fuels, are very efficient with grasses. Calculated carbon sequestration rates may exceed those of annual crops by as much as [20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30] times, due in part to carbon storage in the soil. These differences have major implications for both the rate and efficiency with which fossil energy sources can be replaced with cleaner burning biofuels. Current research is emphasizing quantification of changes in soil nutrients and soil organic matter to provide understanding of the long term changes in soil quality associated with annual removal of high yields of herbaceous energy crops.

Projected economic benefits of renewable energy derived from a native prairie grass, switchgrass, include nonmarket values that can reduce net fuel costs to near zero. At a farm gate price of $44.00/dry Mg, an agricultural sector model predicts higher profits for switchgrass than conventional crops on 16.9 million hectares (ha). Benefits would include an annual increase of $6 billion in net farm returns, a $1.86 billion reduction in government subsidies, and displacement of 44-159 Tg/year (1 Tg ) 10 12 g) of greenhouse gas emissions. Incorporating these values into the pricing structure for switchgrass bioenergy could accelerate commercialization and provide net benefits to the U.S. economy.

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