Although the small GTPase Ran is best known for its roles in nucleocytoplasmic transport, mitotic spindle assembly, and nuclear envelope formation, recent studies have demonstrated the overexpression of Ran in multiple tumor types and that its expression is correlated with a poor patient prognosis, providing evidence for the importance of this GTPase in cell growth regulation. Here we show that Ran is subject to growth factor regulation by demonstrating that it is activated in a serum-dependent manner in human breast cancer cells and, in particular, in response to heregulin, a growth factor that activates the Neu/ ErbB2 tyrosine kinase. The heregulin-dependent activation of Ran requires mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) and stimulates the capped RNA binding capability of the cap-binding complex in the nucleus, thus influencing gene expression at the level of mRNA processing. We further demonstrate that the excessive activation of Ran has important consequences for cell growth by showing that a novel, activated Ran mutant is sufficient to transform NIH-3T3 cells in an mTOR-and epidermal growth factor receptor-dependent manner and that Ran-transformed cells form tumors in mice.Ran is a unique member of the Ras superfamily of GTPases that utilizes a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (the chromatin-associated RCC1 protein), a GTPase-accelerating protein complex (RanGAP/RanBP1), and a single major class of effectors (the importins or karyopherins) to regulate the nucleocytoplasmic transport of various cargo as well as other nuclear functions (for review, see Ref. 1). In interphase cells, a Ran-GTP gradient is formed in response to the nuclear localization of RCC1 together with the cytoplasmic localization of RanGAP. As a result, Ran exists predominantly in an active, GTP-bound state in the nucleus where it is capable of engaging its primary biological effectors, the importins/karyopherins. GTP hydrolysis, catalyzed by RanGAP in the cytoplasm, then results in the dissociation of Ran-GDP from its effector proteins. The nucleocytoplasmic transport of a number of proteins is dependent upon the proper establishment of the Ran-GTP gradient, as best exemplified in the case of classical nuclear import (2). Protein cargo destined for the nucleus is identified by the presence of a nuclear localization sequence. The nuclear localization sequence is recognized by an adapter protein, importin-␣, in the cytosol, and upon binding the cargo, importin-␣ engages importin- to form a complete import complex that translocates to the nucleus. Within the nucleus, Ran-GTP binds to importin-, causing it to dissociate from the import complex, which results in the subsequent release of cargo. Thus, the fact that Ran-GTP is predominantly a nuclear species is pivotal in the directional release of import cargo into the nucleus.Similarly, it has been suggested that Ran plays an essential role in the directional release of capped RNAs in the cytoplasm by regulating the interactions that occur between the nuclear cap-binding complex (CBC) 2 ...
The rhodopsin/transducin-coupled vertebrate vision system has served as a paradigm for G protein-coupled signaling. We have taken advantage of this system to identify new types of constitutively active, transducin-␣ (␣T) subunits. Here we have described a novel dominant-negative mutation, made in the background of a chimera consisting of ␣T and the ␣ subunit of G i1 (designated ␣T*), which involves the substitution of a conserved arginine residue in the conformationally sensitive Switch 3 region. Changing Arg-238 to either lysine or alanine had little or no effect on the ability of ␣T* to undergo rhodopsin-stimulated GDP-GTP exchange, whereas substituting glutamic acid for arginine at this position yielded an ␣T* subunit (␣T*(R238E)) that was incapable of undergoing rhodopsin-dependent nucleotide exchange and was unable to bind or stimulate the target/effector enzyme (cyclic GMP phosphodiesterase). Moreover, unlike the GDP-bound forms of ␣T*, ␣T*(R238A) and ␣T*(R238K), the ␣T*(R238E) mutant did not respond to aluminum fluoride (AlF 4 ؊ ), as read out by changes in Trp-207 fluorescence.However, surprisingly, we found that ␣T*(R238E) effectively blocked rhodopsin-catalyzed GDP-GTP exchange on ␣T*, as well as rhodopsin-stimulated phosphodiesterase activity. Analysis by high pressure liquid chromatography indicated that the ␣T*(R238E) mutant exists in a nucleotide-free state. Nucleotide-free forms of G␣ subunits were typically very sensitive to proteolytic degradation, but ␣T*(R238E) exhibited a resistance to trypsin-proteolysis similar to that observed with activated forms of ␣T*. Overall, these findings indicated that by mutating a single residue in Switch 3, it is possible to generate a unique type of dominant-negative G␣ subunit that can effectively block signaling by G protein-coupled receptors.
Background: Ran is overexpressed in human cancers. Results: Here, we describe a novel activating mutant of Ran and how it up-regulates the expression of the matricellular protein SMOC-2 and induces oncogenic transformation. Conclusion: These findings identify a novel mechanism by which Ran transforms cells. Significance: The results of this study highlight the potential role played by Ran in human cancer.
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