Aim Mesoscale ocean eddies (closed circular currents typically 100-300 km in diameter) are ubiquitous features of the world's oceans. They form partially isolated environments with distinct physical and chemical conditions capable of supporting and transporting whole plankton communities. The productivity and biodiversity of these communities is ultimately dependent on an eddy's ability to retain planktonic organisms. Our aim was to estimate eddy retention time-scales across a range of oceanic environments and larval behaviours, with implications for both distributions and future changes in plankton communities.Location The Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.Methods A particle-tracking model was forced using ocean currents from a number of validated hydrodynamic models covering environments ranging from shelf seas to the open ocean and equatorial to high-latitude waters. Eddies were seeded with large numbers of particles and their rate of loss from the eddy was used to estimate retention times. The influences of common plankton swimming behaviours were explicitly captured in the model.Results Eddy retention times of modelled plankton ranged from 5 to 67 days, with a median of 19 days. Retention times were not correlated with latitude or eddy size. However, plankton residing near the surface of eddies rotating cyclonically (anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere) had significantly shorter retention times than those residing in the same eddy at depth, and vice versa for eddies rotating anticyclonically.Main conclusions We show that ocean eddies have the potential to retain and support planktonic (and even nektonic) communities over many generations and are likely to enhance larval survival for many invertebrate and fish species. Differences in retention with depth suggest that cyclonic and anticyclonic eddies will support differing plankton communities. If their relative geographical distributions change with global climate, then the relative proportions of diatom-based and dinoflagellate-based communities may also change, with potential implications for higher trophic animals.
Short-chain quinones (SCQs) have been identified as potential drug candidates against mitochondrial dysfunction, which largely depends on the reversible redox characteristics of the active quinone core. We recently identified 11 naphthoquinone derivatives, 1–11, from a library of SCQs that demonstrated enhanced cytoprotection and improved metabolic stability compared to the clinically used benzoquinone idebenone. Since the toxicity properties of our promising SCQs were unknown, this study developed multiplex methods and generated detailed toxicity profiles from 11 endpoint measurements using the human hepatocarcinoma cell line HepG2. Overall, the toxicity profiles were largely comparable across different assays, with simple standard assays showing increased sensitivity compared to commercial toxicity assays. Within the 11 naphthoquinones tested, the L-phenylalanine derivative 4 consistently demonstrated the lowest toxicity across all assays. The results of this study not only provide useful information about the toxicity features of SCQs but will also enable the progression of the most promising drug candidates towards their clinical use.
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