Background: Initial screening of potential biomarkers for monitoring dialysis was performed with saliva samples collected from patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). A more thorough analysis of the most promising markers identified in the initial screening was conducted with saliva samples acquired at hourly intervals throughout dialysis to monitor analyte concentrations as dialysis progressed. We observed that salivary nitrite (NO2−) and uric acid (UA) concentrations consistently decreased as dialysis proceeded. Methods: Solution-based colorimetric-detection chemistries for NO2− and UA were converted to a test strip format to produce a simple method for semiquantitatively measuring NO2− and UA concentrations in the clinic or at the patient’s home. We assessed the test strips with saliva samples collected from both ESRD patients undergoing dialysis and healthy control volunteers to qualitatively monitor the effect of dialysis on salivary NO2− and UA. We used computer software to analyze digital images of the resulting test strip color intensities. Results: Test strip measurements showed that mean salivary concentrations of NO2− and UA were decreased in ESRD patients by 86% and 39%, respectively, compared with 15% and 9% for time-matched controls. Comparison of test strip results with calibrated solution-based assays suggests that the test strips can semiquantitatively measure salivary concentrations of NO2− and UA. Conclusions: The colorimetric test strips monitored changes in salivary NO2− and UA concentrations that occurred in ESRD patients during dialysis. The test strips may prove useful for noninvasively evaluating dialysis progress and may also be useful for monitoring renal disease status.

We report a method for the sensitive measurement of genomic DNA based on the direct detection of single molecules of DNA in arrays of femtoliter wells. The method begins by generating short fragments of DNA from large, double-stranded molecules of genomic DNA using either restriction enzymes or sonication. Single-stranded fragments are then generated by melting the duplex, and these fragments are hybridized to complementary biotinylated detection probes and capture probes on paramagnetic beads. The resulting DNA complexes are then labeled with an enzyme (streptavidin-β-galactosidase), and single enzymes associated with these complexes on beads are detected in single molecule arrays (Simoa). DNA concentration is quantified by determining the average number of enzymes per bead via Poisson statistics (digital) or the average bead intensity (analog). The Simoa DNA assay was used to detect genomic DNA purified from S. aureus with an average limit of detection (LOD) of 0.07 fM, or 2100 DNA molecules per 50 μL sample. We used this assay to detect S. aureus spiked into (a) whole blood, with an average LOD of 1100 bacteria per 25 μL sample (0.074 fM), and (b) water from the Charles River, with an LOD of 1300 bacteria per 50 μL sample (0.042 fM). Bacteria were detected in river water without prior purification of DNA. The Simoa DNA assay, which directly detects target DNA molecules without molecular replication, is an attractive alternative to existing sensitive DNA detection technologies that rely on amplification using polymerases, such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Improving the sensitivity of DNA biosensors is extremely important in clinical diagnostics, gene therapy, and a variety of other biomedical studies. In this regard, we have developed a highly sensitive single molecule DNA assay platform with a 1fM experimental detection limit using enzymatic amplification in an array of femtoliter-sized reaction wells. To validate the utility of this technology in our study, we employed a fiber optic array to create thousands of femtoliter-sized reaction wells, each specifically functionalized with oligonucleotide probes capable of capturing biotinylated target DNA. After hybridization, the fiber was incubated with streptavidin-labeled enzyme solution. The bound single enzyme molecules were confined to individual reaction vessels containing excess fluorogenic substrate and catalyzed the production of a sufficient number of fluorescent product molecules to generate a detectable signal. At low target DNA concentrations with relatively short incubation times, only a small percentage of the capture sites bind target DNA, enabling a binary readout of target concentration from the high-density fiber array. This simple binary readout-based scheme is easy to perform and exhibits a high signal-to-noise ratio in the presence of trace amounts of DNA target. Furthermore, it also should be possible to extend this technology to protein detection by modifying the reaction wells with specific capture antibodies. We expect this assay to be useful in a number of biomedical applications where accurate and highly sensitive target analysis is critical.

We describe a high-density microarray for simultaneous detection of proteins and DNA in a single test. In this system, Rolling Circle Amplification (RCA) was used as a signal amplification method for both protein and nucleic acid detection. The microsphere sensors were tested with synthetic DNA and purified recombinant protein analytes. The target DNA sequence was designed from a highly conserved gene that encodes the outer membrane protein P6 (OMP-P6) of both typeable and nontypeable strains of Haemophilus influenzae. The proinflammatory mediators IL-6 and IL-8 were selected as target proteins. Capture antibodies were first immobilized on fluorescently-encoded microspheres. The microspheres were then loaded into the etched microwells of an imaging optical fiber bundle. A sandwich assay was performed for target proteins IL-6 and IL-8 using biotin-labeled secondary antibodies. Biotinylated capture DNA probes were then attached to the detection antibodies via an avidin bridge. A padlock probe, complementary to the target sequence, was subsequently hybridized to the capture probe. In the presence of the target sequence, the padlock probe was ligated and this circular sequence was used for RCA. Following RCA, multiple fluorescently-labeled signal probes were hybridized to each amplified sequence and the microarray was imaged using an epi-fluorescence microscope. With this assay, detection limits down to 10 fM and 1 pM were achieved for proteins and target DNA, respectively. In addition to this new approach for detecting both protein and DNA in a single test using RCA, the limit of detection for IL-8 and IL-6 was improved by three orders of magnitude compared to similar microsphere-based assays.

Human induced pluripotent stem (hiPS) cells offer a novel source of patient-specific cells for regenerative medicine. However, the biological potential of iPS-derived cells and their similarities to cells differentiated from human embryonic stem (hES) cells remain unclear. We derived fibroblast-like cells from two hiPS cell lines and show that their phenotypic properties and patterns of DNA methylation were similar to that of mature fibroblasts and to fibroblasts derived from hES cells. iPS-derived fibroblasts (iPDK) and their hES-derived counterparts (EDK) showed similar cell morphology throughout differentiation, and patterns of gene expression and cell surface markers were characteristic of mature fibroblasts. Array-based methylation analysis was performed for EDK, iPDK and their parental hES and iPS cell lines, and hierarchical clustering revealed that EDK and iPDK had closely-related methylation profiles. DNA methylation analysis of promoter regions associated with extracellular matrix (ECM)-production (COL1A1) by iPS- and hESC-derived fibroblasts and fibroblast lineage commitment (PDGFRβ), revealed promoter demethylation linked to their expression, and patterns of transcription and methylation of genes related to the functional properties of mature stromal cells were seen in both hiPS- and hES-derived fibroblasts. iPDK cells also showed functional properties analogous to those of hES-derived and mature fibroblasts, as seen by their capacity to direct the morphogenesis of engineered human skin equivalents. Characterization of the functional behavior of ES- and iPS-derived fibroblasts in engineered 3D tissues demonstrates the utility of this tissue platform to predict the capacity of iPS-derived cells before their therapeutic application.

Optical fiber microarrays have been used to screen saliva from patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) to ascertain the efficacy of dialysis. We have successfully identified markers in saliva that correlate with kidney disease. Standard assay chemistries for these markers have been converted to disposable test strips such that patients may one day be able to monitor their clinical status at home. Details of these developments are described. In addition, saliva from asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients is being screened for useful diagnostic markers. Our goal is to develop a multiplexed assay for these protein and nucleic acid biomarkers for diagnosing the cause and severity of pulmonary exacerbations, enabling more effective treatment to be administered. These results are reported in the second part of this article.

In this paper we present the development of an optical tweezers platform capable of creating on-demand dynamic microbead arrays for the multiplexed detection of biomolecules. We demonstrate the use of time-shared optical tweezers to dynamically assemble arrays of sensing microspheres, while simultaneously recording fluorescence signals in real time. The detection system is able to achieve multiplexing by using quantum dot nanocrystals as both signaling probes and encoding labels on the surface of the trapped microbeads. The encoding can be further extended by using a range of bead sizes. Finally, the platform is used to detect and identify three genes expressed by pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli O157:H7. The in situ actuation enabled by the optical tweezers, combined with multiplexed fluorescence detection offers a new tool, readily adaptable to biosensing applications in microfluidic devices, and could potentially enable the development of on-demand diagnostics platforms.

Vibrio vulnificus is an aquatic bacterium and an important human pathogen. Strains of V. vulnificus are classified into three different biotypes. The newly emerged biotype 3 has been found to be clonal and restricted to Israel. In the family Vibrionaceae, horizontal gene transfer is the main mechanism responsible for the emergence of new pathogen groups. To better understand the evolution of the bacterium, and in particular to trace the evolution of biotype 3, we performed genome-wide SNP genotyping of 254 clinical and environmental V. vulnificus isolates with worldwide distribution recovered over a 30-year period, representing all phylogeny groups. A custom single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array implemented on the Illumina GoldenGate platform was developed based on 570 SNPs randomly distributed throughout the genome. In general, the genotyping results divided the V. vulnificus species into three main phylogenetic lineages and an additional subgroup, clade B, consisting of environmental and clinical isolates from Israel. Data analysis suggested that 69% of biotype 3 SNPs are similar to SNPs from clade B, indicating that biotype 3 and clade B have a common ancestor. The rest of the biotype 3 SNPs were scattered along the biotype 3 genome, probably representing multiple chromosomal segments that may have been horizontally inserted into the clade B recipient core genome from other phylogroups or bacterial species sharing the same ecological niche. Results emphasize the continuous evolution of V. vulnificus and support the emergence of new pathogenic groups within this species as a recurrent phenomenon. Our findings contribute to a broader understanding of the evolution of this human pathogen.