SignificanceWe do not fully understand how behavior evolves. Here we investigate the genomic basis of bower building among Lake Malawi cichlid fishes. Males construct bowers of two major types, pits and castles, to attract females in mating displays. Thousands of genetic variants are strongly associated with divergence in bower behavior. Remarkably, F1 hybrids of pit-digging and castle-building species perform sequential construction of first pit and then castle bowers. Analysis of brain gene expression in hybrids showed behavior-dependent allele-specific expression with preferential expression of pit-digging alleles during pit digging and castle-building alleles during castle building. Our results suggest that behaviors evolve via complex genetic architectures featuring cis-regulatory differences whose effects on gene expression are specific and context dependent.

Social hierarchies are ubiquitous in social species and profoundly influence physiology and behavior. Androgens like testosterone have been strongly linked to social status, yet the molecular mechanisms regulating social status are not known. The African cichlid fish Astatotilapia burtoni is a powerful model species for elucidating the role of androgens in social status given their rich social hierarchy and genetic tractability. Dominant A. burtoni males possess large testes and bright coloration and perform aggressive and reproductive behaviors while nondominant males do not. Social status in A. burtoni is in flux, however, as males alter their status depending on the social environment. Due to a teleost-specific whole-genome duplication, A. burtoni possess two androgen receptor (AR) paralogs, ARα and ARβ, providing a unique opportunity to disentangle the role of gene duplication in the evolution of social systems. Here, we used CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing to generate AR mutant A. burtoni and performed a suite of experiments to interrogate the mechanistic basis of social dominance. We find that ARβ, but not ARα, is required for testes growth and bright coloration, while ARα, but not ARβ, is required for the performance of reproductive behavior and aggressive displays. Both receptors are required to reduce flees from females and either AR is sufficient for attacking males. Thus, social status in A. burtoni is inordinately dissociable and under the modular control of two AR paralogs. This type of nonredundancy may be important in facilitating social plasticity in A. burtoni and other species whose social status relies on social experience.

Despite considerable research, we still know little about the proximate and ultimate causes behind behavioral evolution. This is partly because understanding the forces acting on behavioral phenotypes requires the study of species-rich clades with extensive variation in behavioral traits, of which we have few current examples. In this paper, we introduce the bower-building cichlids of the Lake Malawi adaptive radiation, a lineage with over 100 species, each possessing a distinct male extended phenotype used to signal reproductive fitness. Extended phenotypes are useful units of analysis for the study of behavior since they are static structures that can be precisely measured within populations. To this end we recognize two core types of bowers -mounds ("castles") and depressions ("pits"). We employ an established framework for the study of adaptive radiations to ask how traits related to other stages of radiations, macrohabitat and feeding morphology, are associated with the evolution of pit and castle phenotypes. We demonstrate that pits and castles are evolutionarily labile traits and have been derived numerous times in multiple Malawi genera. Using public ecological and phenotypic data sets we find significant and correlated differences in macrohabitat (depth), sensory ability (opsin expression), and feeding style (jaw morphology and biomechanics) between pit-digging and castle-building species. Phylogeny-corrected comparisons also show significant differences in several measures of jaw morphology while indicating non-significant differences in depth. Finally, using laboratory observations we assay courtship behaviors in a pit-digging (Copadichromis virginalis) and a castle-building species (Mchenga conophoros). Together, these results show that traits at multiple biological levels act to regulate the evolution of a courtship behavior within natural populations.

Understanding the relationships between neural activity and behavior represents a critical challenge, one that requires generalizable statistical tools that can capture complex structures within large datasets. We developed Time-REsolved BehavioraL Embedding (TREBLE), a flexible method for analyzing behavioral data from freely moving animals. Using data from synthetic trajectories, fruit flies, and mice we show how TREBLE can capture both continuous and discrete behavioral dynamics, can uncover behavioral variation across individuals, and can detect the effects of optogenetic perturbation in an unbiased fashion. By applying TREBLE to the freely moving mouse, and medial entorhinal cortex (MEC) recordings, we show that nearly all MEC neurons encode information relevant to specific movement patterns, expanding our understanding of how navigation is related to the execution of locomotion. Thus, TREBLE provides a flexible framework for describing the structure of complex behaviors and their relationships to neural activity.

For many species, social rank determines which individuals perform certain social behaviors and when. Higher ranking or dominant (DOM) individuals maintain status through aggressive interactions and perform courtship behaviors while non-dominant (ND) individuals do not. In some species ND individuals ascend (ASC) in social rank when the opportunity arises. Many important questions related to the mechanistic basis of social ascent remain to be answered. We probed whether androgen signaling regulates social ascent in male Astatotilapia burtoni, an African cichlid whose social hierarchy can be readily controlled in the laboratory. As expected, androgen receptor (AR) antagonism abolished reproductive behavior during social ascent. However, we discovered multiple AR-dependent-and AR-independent-temporal behavioral patterns that typify social ascent and dominance. AR antagonism in ASC males reduced the speed of behavioral performance compared to DOM males. Socially ascending males, independent of AR activation, were more likely than DOM males to follow aggressive displays with another aggressive display. Further analyses revealed differences in the sequencing of aggressive and courtship behaviors, wherein DOM males were more likely than ASC males to follow maledirected aggression with courtship displays. Strikingly, this difference was driven mostly by ASC males taking longer to transition from aggression to courtship, suggesting ASC males can perform certain DOM-typical temporal behavioral patterns. Our results indicate androgen signaling drives social ascent, but hormonal signaling and social experience shape the full suite of DOM-typical behavioral patterns..

Natural selection on collective behavior acts on variation among colonies in behavior that is associated with reproductive success. In the red harvester ant (Pogonomyrmex barbatus), variation among colonies in the collective regulation of foraging in response to humidity is associated with colony reproductive success. We used RNA-seq to examine gene expression in the brains of foragers in a natural setting. We find that colonies differ in the expression of neurophysiologically-relevant genes in forager brains, and a fraction of these gene expression differences are associated with two colony traits: sensitivity of foraging activity to humidity, and forager brain dopamine to serotonin ratio. Loci that were correlated with colony behavioral differences were enriched in neurotransmitter receptor signaling & metabolic functions, tended to be more central to coexpression networks, and are evolving under higher proteincoding sequence constraint. Natural selection may shape colony foraging behavior through variation in gene expression.

Recent years have seen an increase in studies that associate genomic loci with behavioral variation both within and across animal species. Ryan York compiles and analyzes over 1,000 of these loci, finding that the genetic...

Highlights d PaSNA in the Drosophila embryonic CNS is spatiotemporally stereotyped d Mechanosensory neurons negatively modulate PaSNA d Embryonic PaSNA is required for innate locomotor behavior