Using an ecological systems conceptual framework proposed by Bronfenbrenner, research on the inclusion of preschool children with disabilities in programs with typically developing children was reviewed. Drawing mainly from studies conducted in the United States, research on child characteristics (biosystem), classroom practices (microsystem), family perspectives (mesosystem), social policy (exosystem), culture (macrosystem), and changes in variables across time (chronosystem) is described. Positive developmental and behavioral outcomes occur for children with and without disabilities in inclusive settings, although as a group, children with disabilities are not as socially integrated as their typically developing peers. Parent attitudes are generally positive although they voice some concerns about inclusion. Several social policy issues within the U.S. system (e.g., enforcement of standards, fiscal issues) serve as barriers to and facilitators of implementation of preschool inclusion, and cultural variables shape the nature of inclusive classrooms as well as family access to inclusive settings.

Inclusion is a challenging educational practice to implement at the preschool level. We interviewed early childhood teachers, related services providers, program directors, and state-level administrators in 18 public schools, Head Start, and community-based programs in four geographical regions across the United States. Interviews were analyzed to determine factors that were facilitators of or barriers to the development of inclusive preschool programs and to describe where inclusion began for each of the programs. Key personnel was the strongest facilitator of inclusion across all programs. Other important influences were the provision of training and external support, holding a shared vision, and the impact of national and state policies.

The purpose of this study was to examine the instructional costs of inclusive and traditional noninclusive special education services for preschool children with disabilities. Cost information was collected from five local education agencies in different parts of the country that provided inclusive and traditional special education service options. Within-agency comparisons suggested that inclusive models were generally less expensive or comparable in cost to traditional forms of special education. Cost features, such as salaries, childcare tuition, equipment, materials, transportation, administration, and building costs were associated differently with different models. The difficulty in collecting cost information on noninstructional costs, the relatively mild degree of disabilities of children in the study, and potentially different groups of children enrolled in inclusive and traditional models were noted as limitations of this study.

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