The free radical theory of aging proposes that ROS (reactive oxygen species) are major driving forces of aging, and are also critically involved in cellular senescence. Besides the mitochondrial respiratory chain, alternative sources of ROS have been described that might contribute to cellular senescence. Noxs (NADPH oxidases) are well-known sources of superoxide, which contribute to the antimicrobial capabilities of macrophages, a process involving the prototypical member of the family referred to as Nox2. However, in recent years non-phagocytic homologues of Nox2 have been identified that are involved in processes other than the host defence. Superoxide anions produced by these enzymes are believed to play a major role in signalling by MAPKs (mitogen-activated protein kinases) and stress-activated kinases, but could also contribute to cellular senescence, which is known to involve oxygen radicals. In HUVECs (human umbilical vein endothelial cells), Nox4 is predominantly expressed, but its role in replicative senescence of HUVECs remains to be elucidated. Using shRNA (small-hairpin RNA)-mediated knockdown of Nox4, implicating lentiviral vectors, we addressed the question of whether lifelong depletion of Nox4 in HUVECs would influence the senescent phenotype. We found a significant extension of the replicative lifespan of HUVECs upon knockdown of Nox4. Surprisingly, mean telomere length was significantly reduced in Nox4-depleted cells. Nox4 depletion had no discernable influence on the activity of MAPKs and stress-activated kinases, but reduced the degree of oxidative DNA damage. These results suggest that Nox4 activity increases oxidative damage in HUVECs, leading to loss of replicative potential, which is at least partly independent of telomere attrition.

BackgroundCellular senescence can be induced by a variety of extrinsic stimuli, and sustained exposure to sunlight is a key factor in photoaging of the skin. Accordingly, irradiation of skin fibroblasts by UVB light triggers cellular senescence, which is thought to contribute to extrinsic skin aging, although molecular mechanisms are incompletely understood. Here, we addressed molecular mechanisms underlying UVB induced senescence of human diploid fibroblasts.ResultsWe observed a parallel activation of the p53/p21WAF1 and p16INK4a/pRb pathways. Using genome-wide transcriptome analysis, we identified a transcriptional signature of UVB-induced senescence that was conserved in three independent strains of human diploid fibroblasts (HDF) from skin. In parallel, a comprehensive screen for microRNAs regulated during UVB-induced senescence was performed which identified five microRNAs that are significantly regulated during the process. Bioinformatic analysis of miRNA-mRNA networks was performed to identify new functional mRNA targets with high confidence for miR-15a, miR-20a, miR-20b, miR-93, and miR-101. Already known targets of these miRNAs were identified in each case, validating the approach. Several new targets were identified for all of these miRNAs, with the potential to provide new insight in the process of UVB-induced senescence at a genome-wide level. Subsequent analysis was focused on miR-101 and its putative target gene Ezh2. We confirmed that Ezh2 is regulated by miR-101 in human fibroblasts, and found that both overexpression of miR-101 and downregulation of Ezh2 independently induce senescence in the absence of UVB irradiation. However, the downregulation of miR-101 was not sufficient to block the phenotype of UVB-induced senescence, suggesting that other UVB-induced processes induce the senescence response in a pathway redundant with upregulation of miR-101.ConclusionWe performed a comprehensive screen for UVB-regulated microRNAs in human diploid fibroblasts, and identified a network of miRNA-mRNA interactions mediating UVB-induced senescence. In addition, miR-101 and Ezh2 were identified as key players in UVB-induced senescence of HDF.

According to the mitochondrial theory of aging, reactive oxygen species (ROS) derived primarily from mitochondria cause cumulative oxidative damage to various cellular molecules and thereby contribute to the aging process. On the other hand, a pivotal role of the proteasome, as a main proteolytic system implicated in the degradation of oxidized proteins during aging, is suggested. In this study, we analyzed mitochondrial function in dermal fibroblasts derived from biopsies obtained from healthy young, middle-aged, and old donors. We also determined proteasome activity in these cells, using a degron-destabilized green fluorescent protein (GFP)-based reporter protein. We found a significant decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential in samples from aged donors, accompanied by a significant increase in ROS levels. Respiratory activity was not significantly altered with donor age, probably reflecting genetic variation. Proteasome activity was significantly decreased in fibroblasts from middle-aged donors compared with young donors; fibroblasts derived from the oldest donors displayed a high heterogeneity in this assay. We also found intraindividual coregulation of mitochondrial and proteasomal activities in all human fibroblast strains tested, suggesting that both systems are interdependent. Accordingly, pharmacological inhibition of the proteasome led to decreased mitochondrial function, whereas inhibition of mitochondrial function in turn reduced proteasome activity.

Proteasome is the main intracellular organelle involved in the proteolytic degradation of abnormal, misfolded, damaged or oxidized proteins 1,2 . Maintenance of proteasome activity was implicated in many key cellular processes, like cell's stress response 3 , cell cycle regulation and cellular differentiation 4 or in immune system response 5. The dysfunction of the ubiquitin-proteasome system has been related to the development of tumors and neurodegenerative diseases 4,6 . Additionally, a decrease in proteasome activity was found as a feature of cellular senescence and organismal aging 7,8,9,10 . Here, we present a method to measure ubiquitin-proteasome activity in living cells using a GFP-dgn fusion protein.To be able to monitor ubiquitin-proteasome activity in living primary cells, complementary DNA constructs coding for a green fluorescent protein (GFP)-dgn fusion protein (GFP-dgn, unstable) and a variant carrying a frameshift mutation (GFP-dgnFS, stable 11 ) are inserted in lentiviral expression vectors. We prefer this technique over traditional transfection techniques because it guarantees a very high transfection efficiency independent of the cell type or the age of the donor. The difference between fluorescence displayed by the GFP-dgnFS (stable) protein and the destabilized protein (GFP-dgn) in the absence or presence of proteasome inhibitor can be used to estimate ubiquitin-proteasome activity in each particular cell strain. These differences can be monitored by epifluorescence microscopy or can be measured by flow cytometry. Video LinkThe video component of this article can be found at http://www.jove.com/video/3327/ Protocol 1. Plasmid Construction 1. Order custom oligo-nucleotides encoding for dgn (ACKNWFSSLSHFVIHL 11 ) and for dgnFS (HARTGSLACPTSSSICE) and ligate it into the pEGFP-C1 vector to obtain the fusion of the GFP with dgn/dgnFS (Figure 1). 2. Amplify the coding sequence for GFP-dgn and GFP-dgnFS by PCR according to the protocol of the pENTR Directional TOPO Cloning Kit and continue with the pLenti6/V5 Directional TOPO Cloning Kit (Figure 6). Virus Production1. The day before transfection (Day 1) seed out HEK 293FT cells in a T75 flasks so that they will be 90-95% confluent on the day of transfection. 2. On the day of transfection dilute 36 μl of lipofectamine 2000 Reagent in 1.5 ml of DMEM without serum and antibiotics in a 15 ml falcon.Use another 15 ml falcon and dilute 3 μg pLenti6/V5 carrying the complementary DNA construct for either GFP-dgn or GFP-dgnFS, 2.5 μg envelope encoding plasmid pMD2.G and 7.5 μg vector backbone psPAX2 in 1.5 ml of DMEM without serum and antibiotics. After 5 min the diluted DNA is combined with the diluted lipofectamine 2000 Reagent. 3. Incubate the mixture for 20 min at room temperature to allow the DNA-lipofectamine complexes to form. 4. Remove the medium of HEK 293FT cells, replace it carefully by 7 ml of medium (without antibiotics) and add the DNA-lipofectamine mixture to the flask and rock it back and forth for mixing (Day 2). Incubate t...

Proteasome is the main intracellular organelle involved in the proteolytic degradation of abnormal, misfolded, damaged or oxidized proteins 1, 2 . Maintenance of proteasome activity was implicated in many key cellular processes, like cell's stress response 3 , cell cycle regulation and cellular differentiation 4 or in immune system response 5. The dysfunction of the ubiquitin-proteasome system has been related to the development of tumors and neurodegenerative diseases 4, 6. Additionally, a decrease in proteasome activity was found as a feature of cellular senescence and organismal aging 7,8,9,10 . Here, we present a method to measure ubiquitin-proteasome activity in living cells using a GFP-dgn fusion protein.To be able to monitor ubiquitin-proteasome activity in living primary cells, complementary DNA constructs coding for a green fluorescent protein (GFP)-dgn fusion protein (GFP-dgn, unstable) and a variant carrying a frameshift mutation (GFP-dgnFS, stable 11