BackgroundThe use of antibiotics is the single most important driver in antibiotic resistance. Nevertheless, antibiotic overuse remains common. Decline in antibiotic prescribing in the United States coincided with the launch of national educational campaigns in the 1990s and other interventions, including the introduction of routine infant immunizations with the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV-7); however, it is unknown if these trends have been sustained through recent measurements.MethodsWe performed an analysis of nationally representative data from the Medical Expenditure Panel Surveys from 2000 to 2010. Trends in population-based prescribing were examined for overall antibiotics, broad-spectrum antibiotics, antibiotics for acute respiratory tract infections (ARTIs) and antibiotics prescribed during ARTI visits. Rates were reported for three age groups: children and adolescents (<18 years), adults (18 to 64 years), and older adults (≥65 years).ResultsAn estimated 1.4 billion antibiotics were dispensed over the study period. Overall antibiotic prescribing decreased 18% (risk ratio (RR) 0.82, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.72 to 0.94) among children and adolescents, remained unchanged for adults, and increased 30% (1.30, 1.14 to 1.49) among older adults. Rates of broad-spectrum antibiotic prescriptions doubled from 2000 to 2010 (2.11, 1.81 to 2.47). Proportions of broad-spectrum antibiotic prescribing increased across all age groups: 79% (1.79, 1.52 to 2.11) for children and adolescents, 143% (2.43, 2.07 to 2.86) for adults and 68% (1.68, 1.45 to 1.94) for older adults. ARTI antibiotic prescribing decreased 57% (0.43, 0.35 to 0.52) among children and adolescents and 38% (0.62, 0.48 to 0.80) among adults; however, it remained unchanged among older adults. While the number of ARTI visits declined by 19%, patients with ARTI visits were more likely to receive an antibiotic (73% versus 64%; P <0.001) in 2010 than in 2000.ConclusionsAntibiotic use has decreased among children and adolescents, but has increased for older adults. Broad-spectrum antibiotic prescribing continues to be on the rise. Public policy initiatives to promote the judicious use of antibiotics should continue and programs targeting older adults should be developed.

Healthcare-associated pneumonia (HCAP) guidelines were first proposed in 2005 but have not yet been validated. The objective of this study was to compare 30-day mortality in HCAP patients treated with either guideline-concordant (GC)-HCAP therapy or GC communityacquired pneumonia (CAP) therapy.We performed a population-based cohort study of .150 hospitals in the US Veterans Health Administration. Patients were included if they had one or more HCAP risk factors and received antibiotic therapy within 48 h of admission. Critically ill patients were excluded. Independent risk factors for 30-day mortality were determined in a generalised linear mixed-effect model, with admitting hospital as a random effect. Propensity scores for the probability of receiving GC-HCAP therapy were calculated and incorporated into a second logistic regression model.A total of 15,071 patients met study criteria and received GC-HCAP therapy (8.0%), GC-CAP therapy (75.7%) or non-GC therapy (16.3%). The strongest predictors of 30-day mortality were recent hospital admission (OR 2.49, 95% CI 2.12-2.94) and GC-HCAP therapy (OR 2.18, 95% CI 1.86-2.55). GC-HCAP therapy remained an independent risk factor for 30-day mortality (OR 2.12, 95% CI 1.82-2.48) in the propensity score analysis.In nonsevere HCAP patients, GC-HCAP therapy is not associated with improved survival compared with GC-CAP therapy.

Objective To measure the incidence of treatment failure and associated costs in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs). Methods This was a prospective, observational study in 13 primary care clinics. Primary care providers collected clinical data, wound swabs, and 90-day follow-up information. Patients were considered to have “moderate or complicated” SSTIs if they had a lesion ≥ 5 cm in diameter or diabetes mellitus. Treatment failure was evaluated within 90 days of the initial visit. Cost estimates were obtained from federal sources. Results Overall, treatment failure occurred in 21% of patients (n=21/98) at a mean additional cost of $1,933.71 per patient. Treatment failure occurred in 27% of patients in the moderate or complicated group and 11% of patients in the mild or uncomplicated group (p = 0.08). In a subgroup analysis of patients who received I&D, patients with moderate or complicated SSTIs had higher rates of treatment failure than patients with mild or uncomplicated SSTIs (36% vs. 10%; p = 0.04). Conclusions One in five patients presenting to a primary care clinic for a MRSA SSTI will likely require additional interventions as a result of treatment failure at an associated cost of almost $2,000 per patient. Baseline risk stratification and new treatment approaches are needed to reduce treatment failures and costs in the primary care setting.

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BackgroundAfrican-Americans admitted to U.S. hospitals with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) are more likely than Caucasians to experience prolonged hospital length of stay (LOS), possibly due to either differential treatment decisions or patient characteristics.MethodsWe assessed associations between race and outcomes (Intensive Care Unit [ICU] variables, LOS, 30-day mortality) for African-American or Caucasian patients over 65 years hospitalized in the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) with CAP (2002-2007). Patients admitted to the ICU were analyzed separately from those not admitted to the ICU. VHA patients who died within 30 days of discharge were excluded from all LOS analyses. We used chi-square and Fisher's exact statistics to compare dichotomous variables, the Wilcoxon Rank Sum test to compare age by race, and Cox Proportional Hazards Regression to analyze hospital LOS. We used separate generalized linear mixed-effect models, with admitting hospital as a random effect, to examine associations between patient race and the receipt of guideline-concordant antibiotics, ICU admission, use of mechanical ventilation, use of vasopressors, LOS, and 30-day mortality. We defined statistical significance as a two-tailed p ≤ 0.0001.ResultsOf 40,878 patients, African-Americans (n = 4,936) were less likely to be married and more likely to have a substance use disorder, neoplastic disease, renal disease, or diabetes compared to Caucasians. African-Americans and Caucasians were equally likely to receive guideline-concordant antibiotics (92% versus 93%, adjusted OR = 0.99; 95% CI = 0.81 to 1.20) and experienced similar 30-day mortality when treated in medical wards (adjusted OR = 0.98; 95% CI = 0.87 to 1.10). African-Americans had a shorter adjusted hospital LOS (adjusted HR = 0.95; 95% CI = 0.92 to 0.98). When admitted to the ICU, African Americans were as likely as Caucasians to receive guideline-concordant antibiotics (76% versus 78%, adjusted OR = 0.99; 95% CI = 0.81 to 1.20), but experienced lower 30-day mortality (adjusted OR = 0.82; 95% CI = 0.68 to 0.99) and shorter hospital LOS (adjusted HR = 0.84; 95% CI = 0.76 to 0.93).ConclusionsElderly African-American CAP patients experienced a survival advantage (i.e., lower 30-day mortality) in the ICU compared to Caucasians and shorter hospital LOS in both medical wards and ICUs, after adjusting for numerous baseline differences in patient characteristics. There were no racial differences in receipt of guideline-concordant antibiotic therapies.

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Purpose Recent data have not demonstrated improved outcomes when guideline-concordant (GC) antibiotics are given to patients with healthcare-associated pneumonia (HCAP). This study was designed to evaluate the relationship between health outcomes and GC therapy in patients admitted to an ICU with HCAP. Materials and Methods We performed a population-based cohort study of patients admitted to >150 hospitals in the U.S. Veterans Health Administration system to compare baseline characteristics, bacterial pathogens, and health outcomes in ICU patients with HCAP receiving either GC-HCAP therapy, GC community-acquired pneumonia (GC-CAP) therapy, or non-GC therapy. The primary outcome was 30-day patient mortality. Risk factors for the primary outcome were assessed in a multivariable logistic regression model. Results A total of 3,593 patients met inclusion criteria and received GC-HCAP therapy (26%), GC-CAP therapy (23%), or non-GC therapy (51%). GC-HCAP patients had higher 30-day patient mortality compared to GC-CAP patients (34% vs. 22%, p<0.0001). After controlling for confounders, risk factors for 30-day patient mortality were vasopressor use (OR, 95% CI; 1.67, 1.30–2.13), recent hospital admission (1.53, 1.15–2.02), and receipt of GC-HCAP therapy (1.51, 1.20–1.90). Conclusions Our data do not demonstrate improved outcomes among ICU patients with HCAP who received GC-HCAP therapy.

In 2009, the American College of Clinical Pharmacy appointed its first National Resident Advisory Committee and charged it with making recommendations on how residency programs should foster the development of their trainees as effective educators. Currently, many residency programs offer training in educational methods in the form of teaching certificate programs or additional rotations focused on teaching. However, these programs may not be formalized, and they vary in structure and quality. Moreover, many residency programs lack the resources to provide additional training in educational methods. Given the demand for pharmacists as educators, there is a need to train residents to teach. Therefore, the committee evaluated the literature and generated several strategies to aid in the development of pharmacy residents as educators. The committee recommends that programs should consider adopting principles and methods currently employed by successful teaching certificate programs, using distance-learning technology, increasing training for faculty and preceptors in educational principles and methods, standardizing programs, and developing self-learning and/or self-assessment tools to train residents. As the need for pharmacists to serve as effective educators continues to grow, it will be important for institutions, programs, and professional organizations to invest time and resources in training pharmacy residents and defining a minimal set of criteria to ensure the quality of training.