Writing is a complex activity that requires transcription and self-regulation. We used multiple-group structural equation modeling to test the contribution of transcription (handwriting and spelling), planning, revision, and self-efficacy to writing quality at 2 developmental points (Grades 4 -6 vs. 7-9). In Grades 4 -6, the model explained 76% of the variance in writing quality, and transcription contributed directly to text generation. This finding suggests that, for younger students, handwriting and spelling were the strongest constraints to text generation. In Grades 7-9, the model explained 82% of the variance in writing quality. Although transcription did not contribute directly to text generation, it contributed indirectly through planning and self-efficacy. The progressive automatization of transcription throughout school years may contribute to the acquisition and development of self-regulatory skills, which, in turn, positively influence the quality of text generation. Explicit instruction and practice in handwriting, spelling, planning, and revising along with nurturing of realistic self-efficacy beliefs may facilitate writing development beyond primary years of schooling.

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The COVID-19 outbreak has ravaged all societal domains, including education. Home confinement, school closures, and distance learning impacted students, teachers, and parents’ lives worldwide. In this study, we aimed to examine the impact of COVID-19-related restrictions on Italian and Portuguese students’ academic motivation as well as investigate the possible buffering role of extracurricular activities. Following a retrospective pretest–posttest design, 567 parents (nItaly = 173, nPortugal = 394) reported on their children’s academic motivation and participation in extracurricular activities (grades 1 to 9). We used a multi-group latent change score model to compare Italian and Portuguese students’: (1) pre-COVID mean motivation scores; (2) rate of change in motivation; (3) individual variation in the rate of change in motivation; and (4) dependence of the rate of change on initial motivation scores. Estimates of latent change score models showed a decrease in students’ motivation both in Italy and in Portugal, although more pronounced in Italian students. Results also indicated that the decrease in students’ participation in extracurricular activities was associated with changes in academic motivation (i.e., students with a lower decrease in participation in extracurricular activities had also a lower decrease in motivation). Furthermore, students’ age was significantly associated with changes in motivation (i.e., older students had lower decrease). No significant associations were found for students’ gender nor for parents’ education. This study provides an important contribution to the study of students’ academic motivation during home confinement, school closures, and distance learning as restrictive measures adopted to contain a worldwide health emergency. We contend that teachers need to adopt motivation-enhancing practices as means to prevent the decline in academic motivation during exceptional situations.

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Writing development seems heavily dependent upon the automatization of transcription. This study aimed to further investigate the link between transcription and writing by examining the effects of promoting handwriting and spelling skills on a comprehensive set of writing measures (viz., bursts and pauses, levels of written language, and writing performance). Second graders were randomly assigned to one of three intervention programs aimed to promote handwriting (n = 18), spelling (n = 17), or keyboarding (n = 20) skills. These programs were implemented during 10 weekly units composed of four 30-min lessons. The most reliable and robust differences were found between the handwriting and keyboarding interventions. Handwriting students displayed greater handwriting fluency, showed longer bursts and shorter pauses, and wrote longer and better stories than keyboarding students. This study supports the contention that transcription is critical in writing, by leveraging several aspects of early text production. Specifically, a key finding is that handwriting seems to be causally related to increases in burst length, which is a cornerstone in allowing writing fluency.

This study examined the relationships between transcription, high-level writing processes, and writing performance in . Structural equation modeling was used to test the direct effects of handwriting fluency and spelling accuracy on planning and translating, and of these latter on writing performance, as well as the indirect effects of handwriting fluency and spelling accuracy on writing performance, via planning and translating. Results showed that the proposed model fitted the data extremely well, explaining 46% of the variability in writing performance. We found that higher handwriting fluency was associated with better planning skills, higher spelling accuracy was associated with better translating skills, and better planning and translating skills were associated with greater writing performance. We found indirect effects of handwriting fluency and spelling accuracy on writing performance, respectively, via planning and translating. These results suggest that transcription continues to impact on writing during teenage school years, by constraining high-level writing processes.

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Resumo Uma das escalas mais utilizadas para medir a empatia é o Índice de Reactividade Interpessoal de Davis (Interpersonal Reactivity Index, IRI;Davis, 1980Davis, , 1983 Davis, 1980Davis, , 1983 Laboratório de Psicologia, 8(2): 171-184 (2010) A correspondência relativa a este artigo deverá ser enviada para: