BackgroundLasiodiplodia theobromae is a fungus of the Botryosphaeriaceae that causes grapevine vascular disease, especially in regions with hot climates. Fungi in this group often remain latent within their host and become virulent under abiotic stress. Transcriptional regulation analysis of L. theobromae exposed to heat stress (HS) was first carried out in vitro in the presence of grapevine wood (GW) to identify potential pathogenicity genes that were later evaluated for in planta expression.ResultsA total of 19,860 de novo assembled transcripts were obtained, forty-nine per cent of which showed homology to the Botryosphaeriaceae fungi, Neofusicoccum parvum or Macrophomina phaseolina. Three hundred ninety-nine have homology with genes involved in pathogenic processes and several belonged to expanded gene families in others fungal grapevine vascular pathogens. Gene expression analysis showed changes in fungal metabolism of phenolic compounds; where genes encoding for enzymes, with the ability to degrade salicylic acid (SA) and plant phenylpropanoid precursors, were up-regulated during in vitro HS response, in the presence of GW. These results suggest that the fungal L-tyrosine catabolism pathway could help the fungus to remove phenylpropanoid precursors thereby evading the host defense response. The in planta up-regulation of salicylate hydroxylase, intradiol ring cleavage dioxygenase and fumarylacetoacetase encoding genes, further supported this hypothesis. Those genes were even more up-regulated in HS-stressed plants, suggesting that fungus takes advantage of the increased phenylpropanoid precursors produced under stress. Pectate lyase was up-regulated while a putative amylase was down-regulated in planta, this could be associated with an intercellular growth strategy during the first stages of colonization.ConclusionsL. theobromae transcriptome was established and validated. Its usefulness was demonstrated through the identification of genes expressed during the infection process. Our results support the hypothesis that heat stress facilitates fungal colonization, because of the fungus ability to use the phenylpropanoid precursors and SA, both compounds known to control host defense.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-016-2952-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Xylella fastidiosa is a xylem-limited, nutritionally fastidious bacterium that causes several plant diseases including Pierce's disease (PD) in grape and leaf scorch in almond (ALS) and oleander (OLS). OLS strains belong to X. fastidiosa subsp. sandyi, PD strains belong to X. fastidiosa subsp. fastidiosa, and strains from almond designated as ALS strains are of two general types belonging either to X. fastidiosa subsp. multiplex or X. fastidiosa subsp. fastidiosa. The ALS strains assigned to X. fastidiosa subsp. multiplex belong to two different genotypes (ALSI and ALSII) below the subspecies level. The OLS strains do not infect grape or almond. PD strains produce diseases in grape, alfalfa, almond, and some weeds, but they do not infect oleander, oak, peach, or citrus. ALS strains that belong to X. fastidiosa subsp. multiplex do not produce disease on grape. In this study, a relatively simple polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based method was developed to distinguish among PD, OLS, and ALS strains. PCR performed with primers XF1968-L and XF1968-R amplified a 638-bp fragment from OLS strains but not from PD strains or ALS strains that belong to X. fastidiosa subsp. fastidiosa. PCR with primers XF2542-L and XF2542-R amplified a 412-bp fragment from PD strains, but not from OLS strains. PCR with primers ALM1 and ALM2 produced a fragment of 521 bp from strains isolated from almond that belong to X. fastidiosa subsp. multiplex. The combination of the three primer sets allowed the distinction of the two ALS genotypes of X. fastidiosa subsp. multiplex. These results are in agreement with those obtained from analysis of sequences of 16S-23S rDNA intergenic spacer regions sequence analysis and with previous results based on randomly amplified polymorphic DNA analysis.

Exopolysaccharides (EPS) synthesized by plant-pathogenic bacteria are generally essential for virulence. The role of EPS produced by the vector-transmitted bacterium Xylella fastidiosa was investigated by knocking out two genes implicated in the EPS biosynthesis, gumD and gumH. Mutant strains were affected in growth characteristics in vitro, including adhesion to surfaces and biofilm formation. In addition, different assays were used to demonstrate that the mutant strains produced significantly less EPS compared with the wild type. Furthermore, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry showed that both mutant strains did not produce oligosaccharides. Biologically, the mutants were deficient in movement within plants, resulting in an avirulent phenotype. Additionally, mutant strains were affected in transmission by insects: they were very poorly transmitted by and retained within vectors. The gene expression profile indicated upregulation of genes implicated in cell-to-cell signaling and adhesins while downregulation in genes was required for within-plant movement in EPS-deficient strains. These results suggest an essential role for EPS in X. fastidiosa interactions with both plants and insects.

Xylella fastidiosa is an insect-borne, xylem-limited pathogenic bacterium that has been associated with a rise in incidence of diseased landscape ornamentals in southern California. The objective of this study was to genetically characterize strains isolated from ornamental hosts to understand their distribution and identity. Strains of X. fastidiosa isolated from ornamentals were characterized using a multiprimer polymerase chain reaction (PCR) system, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)-PCR, and sequence analysis of the 16S-23S rDNA intergenic spacer region (ISR). Based on RAPD-PCR and 16S-23S rDNA ISR, strains isolated from daylily, jacaranda, and magnolia clustered with members of X. fastidiosa subsp. sandyi and caused oleander leaf scorch but not Pierce's disease symptoms in glasshouse assays on oleander and grape, respectively. This demonstrated both that our groupings based on genetic characterization were valid and that strains of X. fastidiosa subsp. sandyi are present in hosts other than oleander. Strains isolated from Spanish broom, cherry, and one strain isolated from western redbud clustered with X. fastidiosa subsp. fastidiosa members. Strains isolated from purple-leafed plum, olive, peach, plum, sweetgum, maidenhair tree, crape myrtle, and another western redbud strain clustered with members of X. fastidiosa subsp. multiplex. All strains isolated from mulberry and one from heavenly bamboo formed a separate cluster that has not yet been defined as a subspecies.

Xylella fastidiosa is a xylem-limited bacterium that causes Pierce's disease (PD) of grapevines. A variety of plant species found near a severe outbreak of PD in vineyards in the Temecula Valley of California were tested using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, culture on media, and polymerase chain reaction to identify potential inoculum sources in the area. Species that consistently tested positive for X. fastidiosa were the known hosts, grape, almond, and oleander, and two new hosts, Spanish broom (Spartium junceum) and wild mustard (Brassica spp). Sequence analysis of the 16S-23S rRNA spacer region found that strains isolated from grapevine, Spanish broom, wild mustard, and almond clustered with previously sequenced PD strains. Thus, these species could serve as sources of inoculum for infection of grapevines and should be removed or monitored for signs of infection. Sequences from oleander isolates from Temecula formed another cluster with a previously published oleander strain sequence. Oleander strains do not infect grapevines and thus do not appear to cause a direct threat to grapevines. Two additional isolates from almond were determined to be genetically different from PD strains, and the ability of these strains to infect grapevine is not known. Greenhouse transmission studies indicate that the glassy-winged sharpshooter was able to transmit a PD strain of X. fastidiosa to Spanish broom, black mustard, and other hosts.

The Botryosphaeriaceae is a fungal family that includes many destructive vascular pathogens of woody plants (e.g., Botryosphaeria dieback of grape, Panicle blight of pistachio). Species in the genera Botryosphaeria, Diplodia, Dothiorella, Lasiodiplodia, Neofusicoccum, and Neoscytalidium attack a range of horticultural crops, but they vary in virulence and their abilities to infect their hosts via different infection courts (flowers, green shoots, woody twigs). Isolates of seventeen species, originating from symptomatic apricot, grape, pistachio, and walnut were tested for pathogenicity on grapevine wood after 4 months of incubation in potted plants in the greenhouse. Results revealed significant variation in virulence in terms of the length of the internal wood lesions caused by these seventeen species. Phylogenomic comparisons of the seventeen species of wood-colonizing fungi revealed clade-specific expansion of gene families representing putative virulence factors involved in toxin production and mobilization, wood degradation, and nutrient uptake. Statistical analyses of the evolution of the size of gene families revealed expansions of secondary metabolism and transporter gene families in Lasiodiplodia and of secreted cell wall degrading enzymes (CAZymes) in Botryosphaeria and Neofusicoccum genomes. In contrast, Diplodia, Dothiorella, and Neoscytalidium generally showed a contraction in the number of members of these gene families. Overall, species with expansions of gene families, such as secreted CAZymes, secondary metabolism, and transporters, were the most virulent (i.e., were associated with the largest lesions), based on our pathogenicity tests and published reports. This study represents the first comparative phylogenomic investigation into the evolution of possible virulence factors from diverse, cosmopolitan members of the Botryosphaeriaceae.

The xylem-limited, insect-transmitted bacterium Xylella fastidiosa causes Pierce's disease in grapes through cell aggregation and vascular clogging. GacA controls various physiological processes and pathogenicity factors in many gram-negative bacteria, including biofilm formation in Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000. Cloned gacA of X. fastidiosa was found to restore the hypersensitive response and pathogenicity in gacA mutants of P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000 and Erwinia amylovora. A gacA mutant of X. fastidiosa (DAC1984) had significantly reduced abilities to adhere to a glass surface, form biofilm, and incite disease symptoms on grapevines, compared with the parent (A05). cDNA microarray analysis identified 7 genes that were positively regulated by GacA, including xadA and hsf, predicted to encode outer membrane adhesion proteins, and 20 negatively regulated genes, including gumC and an antibacterial polypeptide toxin gene, cvaC. These results suggest that GacA of X. fastidiosa regulates many factors, which contribute to attachment and biofilm formation, as well as some physiological processes that may enhance the adaptation and tolerance of X. fastidiosa to environmental stresses and the competition within the host xylem.

Many virulence genes in plant bacterial pathogens are coordinately regulated by "global" regulatory genes. Conducting DNA microarray analysis of bacterial mutants of such genes, compared with the wild type, can help to refine the list of genes that may contribute to virulence in bacterial pathogens. The regulatory gene algU, with roles in stress response and regulation of the biosynthesis of the exopolysaccharide alginate in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and many other bacteria, has been extensively studied. The role of algU in Xylella fastidiosa, the cause of Pierce's disease of grapevines, was analyzed by mutation and whole-genome microarray analysis to define its involvement in aggregation, biofilm formation, and virulence. In this study, an algU::nptII mutant had reduced cell-cell aggregation, attachment, and biofilm formation and lower virulence in grapevines. Microarray analysis showed that 42 genes had significantly lower expression in the algU::nptII mutant than in the wild type. Among these are several genes that could contribute to cell aggregation and biofilm formation, as well as other physiological processes such as virulence, competition, and survival.