Wheat flour cannot be tolerated by those who suffer allergies to gluten. Human pathologies associated with grain proteins have increased worldwide in recent years, and the only effective treatment available is a lifelong gluten-free diet, which is complicated to follow and detrimental to gut health. This manuscript describes the development of wheat bread potentially suitable for celiac patients and other gluten-intolerant individuals. We have made bread using wheat flour with very low content of the specific gluten proteins (near gliadin-free) that are the causal agents for pathologies such as celiac disease. Loaves were compared with normal wheat breads and rice bread. Organoleptic, nutritional, and immunotoxic properties were studied. The reduced-gliadin breads showed baking and sensory properties, and overall acceptance, similar to those of normal flour, but with up to 97% lower gliadin content. Moreover, the low-gliadin flour has improved nutritional properties since its lysine content is significantly higher than that of normal flour. Conservative estimates indicate that celiac patients could safely consume 67 grams of bread per day that is made with low-gliadin flour. However, additional studies, such as feeding trials with gluten-intolerant patients, are still needed in order to determine whether or not the product can be consumed by the general celiac population, as well as the actual tolerated amount that can be safely ingested. The results presented here offer a major opportunity to improve the quality of life for millions of sufferers of gluten intolerance throughout the world.

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21Microbial, physical and structural changes in high pressured wheat dough were studied 22 as a function of pressure level (50-250 MPa) and holding time (1-4 min). Thereafter, 23 selected conditions of high hydrostatic processing (HPP) were applied to bread dough 24 and the technological quality of the obtained breads was studied. The effect of HPP on 25 wheat dough was investigated by determining microbial population (total aerobic 26 mesophilic bacteria, moulds and yeasts), color and mechanical and texture surface 27 related dough parameters (cohesiveness, adhesiveness, hardness and stickiness). HPP 28 reduced the endogenous microbial population of wheat dough from 10 4 colony forming 29

The fortification of gluten-free bread containing inulin with different organic and non-organic calcium sources was investigated. Calcium lactate, calcium citrate, calcium chloride and calcium carbonate were used as calcium sources. Gluten-free bread composed of corn starch, potato starch, salt, yeast, pectin, sugar and sunflower oil was used as a reference. The calcium salts were supplemented to the gluten-free formula to provide equal content of elementary calcium (Ca ?2 ). The Mixolab Ò device was used to analyse the behaviour of gluten-free dough subjected to a dual mechanical shear stress and temperature constraint. Calcium salts significantly modified the dough behaviour during heating and cooling. The addition of calcium carbonate and calcium citrate provoked an increase in dough consistency during heating and cooling compared with the other salt-enriched samples. The specific volume and texture parameters of gluten-free breads varied with the calcium salt used, but calcium carbonate and calcium citrate showed improved values. The higher calcium content of the enriched breads, compared with the control, confirmed the fortification. Sensory evaluation of the calcium-fortified breads confirmed that calcium carbonate followed by calcium citrate was the most recommended salt for obtaining calcium fortification of gluten-free breads.

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Various studies have been carried out on wheat flour to understand protein and starch changes when subjected to mixing and temperature constraints, but structural changes of proteins and starch at the typical moisture levels of a dough system are not fully understood. The aim of this research was to improve our understanding of (micro)structural changes at the mesoscopic level, through empirical rheology, microscopy (light and scanning electron microscopy), sequential protein extractions, and glutenin macropolymer wet weight along the mixing, heating, and cooling stages of the Mixolab assay. Studies were performed on three wheat flours with different protein contents. The rheological analysis allowed identifying the role of the proteins and the relationship between the protein content and different primary and secondary parameters obtained from the recorded curves. The progressive heating and mixing stages during the Mixolab assay resulted in a dynamic de‐ and restructuring of proteins involving interactions between the flour proteins from water soluble to SDS soluble to SDS insoluble and vice versa. The microstructure analysis with light, polarized, and scanning electron microscopy revealed the changes that proteins and starch molecules underwent during mixing, heating, and cooling. Qualitatively, the starch structural changes, swelling, and gelatinization observed by microscopic techniques showed some parallels with protein (and glutenin) content of the respective flour. Nevertheless, this tentative finding needs further confirmation by studying flour samples with large differences in glutenin content.

a b s t r a c tQuality of several bread specialties from frozen partially baked breads was assessed to define main quality features. Loss of crust freshness shortly after baking was also determined. Quality parameters that characterize bread crust and crumb were determined by instrumental methods in nine different (regarding to formulation and bake off duration) bread types obtained from frozen partially baked breads. Principal component analysis (PCA) allowed discriminating among bread specialties. Quality parameters that enable the differentiation of wheat bread types were crust mechanical properties together with specific volume, crumb hardness and structure. Crust flaking barely represented a problem in the studied types of bread. Crust mechanical properties were rapidly lost during the first 4 h after baking and the rate of the process was greatly dependent on the bread type. The force to promote crust fracture underwent increase up to 6 h after baking and those changes occurred in the Aw range of 0.50e0.74 or moisture content 9e15 g/100 g.

The effect of the puncturing settings (crosshead speed and punch cross-section) on the crust mechanical parameters was investigated using breads with two different crust thickness. Results showed that, greater punch cross-section was associated to compression behavior, which reduced the sensibility to detect changes in the crust structure. Moreover, low crosshead speed (0.5 mm/s) puncture test provided information about the cellular structure of the crust. The relationship between the puncturing parameters and the water activity and moisture content together with the crust microstructure analysis revealed that for obtaining reliable information about the structural ruptures related to crispiness texture, it is necessary to use low crosshead speeds (0.5 mm/s) and low punch cross-section (3 mm 2 ). Crust microstructure observations indicate that the crust layers and the size and shape of the air cells are responsible of the puncturing behavior. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSTexture of the bread crust is an important parameter used to define the quality of crispy breads and their freshness. Consequently, the extension of crust crispiness is still a priority for the baking industry. Different methods have been proposed for assessing the mechanical properties of the bread crust, although punching is a common feature in all of them. However, there is no information about the incidence of punching settings on the bread crust mechanical parameters. Water activity and moisture content of the crust, besides scanning electron microscopy of the crust section, were used to confirm the reliability of the mechanical parameters. The study allows defining the best conditions to study the crust's mechanical properties providing information about the internal cell structure. Results could be very useful at research level and also for the baking industry when investigating crust freshness. bs_bs_banner A journal to advance the fundamental understanding of food texture and sensory perception Journal of Texture Studies ISSN 1745-4603 85 Journal of Texture Studies 44 (2013) 85-94