Understanding how protein-protein interactions depend on the choice of buffer, salt, ionic strength, and pH is needed to have better control over protein solution behavior. Here, we have characterized the pH and ionic strength dependence of protein-protein interactions in terms of an interaction parameter kD obtained from dynamic light scattering and the osmotic second virial coefficient B22 measured by static light scattering. A simplified protein-protein interaction model based on a Baxter adhesive potential and an electric double layer force is used to separate out the contributions of longer-ranged electrostatic interactions from short-ranged attractive forces. The ionic strength dependence of protein-protein interactions for solutions at pH 6.5 and below can be accurately captured using a Deryaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) potential to describe the double layer forces. In solutions at pH 9, attractive electrostatics occur over the ionic strength range of 5-275 mM. At intermediate pH values (7.25 to 8.5), there is a crossover effect characterized by a nonmonotonic ionic strength dependence of protein-protein interactions, which can be rationalized by the competing effects of long-ranged repulsive double layer forces at low ionic strength and a shorter ranged electrostatic attraction, which dominates above a critical ionic strength. The change of interactions from repulsive to attractive indicates a concomitant change in the angular dependence of protein-protein interaction from isotropic to anisotropic. In the second part of the paper, we show how the Baxter adhesive potential can be used to predict values of kD from fitting to B22 measurements, thus providing a molecular basis for the linear correlation between the two protein-protein interaction parameters.

Better predictive ability of salt and buffer effects on protein-protein interactions requires separating out contributions due to ionic screening, protein charge neutralization by ion binding, and salting-in(out) behavior. We have carried out a systematic study by measuring protein-protein interactions for a monoclonal antibody over an ionic strength range of 25 to 525 mM at 4 pH values (5, 6.5, 8, and 9) in solutions containing sodium chloride, calcium chloride, sodium sulfate, or sodium thiocyante. The salt ions are chosen so as to represent a range of affinities for protein charged and noncharged groups. The results are compared to effects of various buffers including acetate, citrate, phosphate, histidine, succinate, or tris. In low ionic strength solutions, anion binding affinity is reflected by the ability to reduce protein-protein repulsion, which follows the order thiocyanate > sulfate > chloride. The sulfate specific effect is screened at the same ionic strength required to screen the pH dependence of protein-protein interactions indicating sulfate binding only neutralizes protein charged groups. Thiocyanate specific effects occur over a larger ionic strength range reflecting adsorption to charged and noncharged regions of the protein. The latter leads to salting-in behavior and, at low pH, a nonmonotonic interaction profile with respect to sodium thiocyanate concentration. The effects of thiocyanate can not be rationalized in terms of only neutralizing double layer forces indicating the presence of an additional short-ranged protein-protein attraction at moderate ionic strength. Conversely, buffer specific effects can be explained through a charge neutralization mechanism, where buffers with greater valency are more effective at reducing double layer forces at low pH. Citrate binding at pH 6.5 leads to protein charge inversion and the formation of attractive electrostatic interactions. Throughout the report, we highlight similarities in the measured protein-protein interaction profiles with previous studies of globular proteins and of antibodies providing evidence that the behavior will be common to other protein systems.

Predicting the concentrated solution behavior for monoclonal antibodies requires developing and using minimal models to describe their shape and interaction potential. Toward this end, the small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) profiles for a monoclonal antibody (COE-03) have been measured under solution conditions chosen to produce weak self-association. The experiments are complemented with molecular simulations of a three-bead antibody model with and without interbead attraction. The scattering profile is extracted directly from the molecular simulation to avoid using the decoupling approximation. We examine the ability of the three-bead model to capture features of the scattering profile and the dependence of compressibilty on protein concentration. The three-bead model is able to reproduce generic features of the experimental structure factor as a function of wave vector S(k) including a well-defined shoulder, which is a consequence of the planar structure of the antibody, and a well-defined minimum in S(k) at k ∼ 0.025 Å. We also show the decoupling approximation is incapable of accounting for highly anisotropic shapes. The best-fit parameters obtained from matching spherical models to simulated scattering profiles are protein concentration dependent, which limits their applicability for predicting thermodynamic properties. Nevertheless, the experimental compressibility curves can be accurately reproduced by an appropriate parametrization of the Baxter adhesive model, indicating the model provides a semiempirical equation of state for the antibody. The results provide insights into how equations of state can be improved for antibodies by accounting for their anisotropic shapes.