Non-polio enteroviruses (NPEVs) have been reported frequently in association with acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) cases during Polio Surveillance Programs (PSPs) worldwide. However, there is limited understanding on the attributes of their infections. This study reports characteristics of NPEVs isolated from AFP cases, investigated during PSPs held in 2009–2010, in Karnataka and Kerala states of south-western India having varied climatic conditions. NPEV cell culture isolates derived from stool specimens that were collected from 422 of 2186 AFP cases (<1–14 years age) and 17 of 41 asymptomatic contacts; and details of all AFP cases/contacts were obtained from National Polio Laboratory, Bangalore. The distribution of NPEV infections among AFP cases and circulation pattern of NPEV strains were determined by statistical analysis of the data. Genotyping of all NPEV isolates was carried out by partial VP1 gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. NPEV positive AFP cases were significantly higher in children aged <2 years; with residual paralysis; in summer months; and in regions with relatively hot climate. Genotyping of NPEVs identified predominance of human enteroviruses (HEV)-B species [81.9%—Echoviruses (E): 57.3%; coxsackieviruses (CV) B: 15%; numbered EVs: 8.9%; CVA9: 0.7%] and low levels of HEV-A [14.5%—CVA: 6%; numbered EVs: 8.5%] and HEV-C [3.6%—CVA: 2.6%; numbered EVs: 1%] species, encompassing 63 genotypes. EV76 (6.3%) and each of E3, CVB3 and E9 (4.97%) were found frequently during 2009 while E11 (6.7%), CVB1 (6.1%), E7 (5.1%) and E20 (5.1%) were detected commonly in 2010. A marked proportion of AFP cases from children aged <2 years; presenting with fever; and from north and south interior parts of Karnataka state was detected with E/numbered EVs than that found with CVA/CVB. This study highlights the extensive genetic diversity and diverse circulation patterns of NPEV strains in AFP cases from different populations and climatic conditions.

Acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) associated with coxsackievirus type B3 (CV-B3) of the species Enterovirus B is an emerging concern worldwide. Although CV-B3-associated AFP in India has been demonstrated previously, the genomic characterization of these strains is unreported. Here, CV-B3 strains detected on the basis of the partial VP1 gene in 10 AFP cases and five asymptomatic contacts identified from different regions of south-western India during 2009-2010 through the Polio Surveillance Project were considered for complete genome sequencing and characterization. Phylogenetic analysis of complete VP1 gene sequences of global CV-B3 strains classified Indian CV-B3 strains into genogroup GVI, along with strains from Uzbekistan and Bangladesh, and into a new genogroup, GVII. Genomic divergence between genogroups of the study strains was 14.4 % with significantly lower divergence (1.8 %) within GVI (n512) than that within GVII (8.5 %) (n53). The strains from both AFP cases and asymptomatic contacts, identified mainly in coastal Karnataka and Kerala, belonged to the dominant genogroup GVI, while the GVII strains were recovered from AFP cases in north interior Karnataka. All study strains carried inter-genotypic recombination with the structural region similar to reference CV-B3 strains, and 59 non-coding regions and non-structural regions closer to other enterovirus B types. Domain II structures of 59 non-coding regions, described to modulate virus replication, were predicted to have varied structural folds in the two genogroups and were attributed to differing recombination patterns. The results indicate two distinct genomic compositions of CV-B3 strains circulating in India and suggest the need for concurrent analysis of viral and host factors to further understand the varied manifestations of their infections.

Utilization of sex-sorted semen generates many opportunities for dairy industry and further enhancement of the rural economy by production of offspring of a chosen sex and rapid genetic development within specific herds of interest. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has recognized that sperm sexing offers a favourable breeding strategy that help to meet the increased requirement of food production (Rath et al., 2015).Majority of the methods used for sperm sexing suffer from lower accuracy, poor repeatability and render low fertility (Seidel, 2012).

The full-length genome sequence analysis of four coxsackievirus A24 (CV-A24) strains, detected in three paralytic and one post-asthmatic paralytic (Hopkins syndrome) cases, is reported here for the first time. A phylogenetic tree constructed on the basis of entire genomes displayed topology similar to that of the full-VP1 tree, classifying the study strains in genogroup CV-A24vGIV along with their temporal counterparts in strains from non-paralytic cases. The strains of the study formed a single genetic cluster C4 within CV-A24vGIV and showed 3.5-19.4 % nucleotide sequence divergence, with 2-4 novel nucleotide mutations in the 5'NCR and 3-8 unique amino acid substitutions in the polyprotein, with respect to the CV-A24 strains associated with non-paralytic cases. Among the nucleotide mutations, A299U was identified in the 5'NCRs of all of the study strains. CV-A24v strains of the same genogroup with few genomic variations but different disease manifestations need to be explored to investigate the molecular basis of evolution of neurovirulence.

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