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Although the experience of work is saturated with emotion, research has generally neglected the impact of everyday emotions on organizational life. Further, organizational scholars and practitioners frequently appear to assume that emotionality is the antithesis of rationality and, thus, frequently hold a pejorative view of emotion. This has led to four institutionalized mechanisms for regulating the experience and expression of emotion in the workplace: (1) neutralizing, (2) buffering, (3) prescribing, and (4) normalizing emotion. In contrast to this perspective, we argue that emotionality and rationality are interpenetrated, emotions are an integral and inseparable part of organizational life, and emotions are often functional for the organization. This argument is illustrated by applications to motivation, leadership, and group dynamics.

This meta-analysis builds upon a previous meta-analysis by (1) including 65 per cent more studies that have over twice the sample size to estimate the relationships between emotional intelligence (EI) and job performance; (2) using more current meta-analytical studies for estimates of relationships among personality variables and for cognitive ability and job performance; (3) using the three-stream approach for classifying EI research; (4) performing tests for differences among streams of EI research and their relationships with personality and cognitive intelligence; (5) using latest statistical procedures such as dominance analysis; and (6) testing for publication bias. We classified EI studies into three streams: (1) ability-based models that use objective test items; (2) self-report or peer-report measures based on the fourbranch model of EI; and (3) ''mixed models'' of emotional competencies. The three streams have corrected correlations ranging from 0.24 to 0.30 with job performance. The three streams correlated differently with cognitive ability and with neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Streams 2 and 3 have the largest incremental validity beyond cognitive ability and the Five Factor Model (FFM). Dominance analysis demonstrated that all three streams of EI exhibited substantial relative importance in the presence of FFM and intelligence when predicting job performance. Publication bias had negligible influence on observed effect sizes. The results support the overall validity of EI.

Purpose-This paper seeks to argue that leaders perform emotional labor whenever they display emotions in an attempt to influence their subordinates' moods and motivations. Design/methodology/approach-This is a conceptual paper that integrates the literature on leadership with the research on emotional labor. Findings-This paper develops 15 propositions that distinguish emotional labor performed by leaders from that performed by front-line service workers. Research limitations/implications-The paper suggests that leading with emotional labor is a fruitful research topic, and that considerable research could be done in this area. Practical implications-Instead of conducting business in a non-emotional, "business-like manner", leaders would benefit by expressing their emotions in the workplace. Emotionally expressive leaders are more charismatic and are better motivators. Originality/value-This is the first paper to develop a theoretical model that describes how leaders perform emotional labor; thus the propositions are original.

Emotional labor (expressing emotions as part of one's job duties, as in "service with a smile") can be beneficial for employees, organizations, and customers. Meta-analytical summaries reveal that deep acting (summoning up the appropriate feelings one wants to display) generally has positive outcomes. Unlike surface acting (faking emotions), deep acting does not harm employee well-being, and deep acting is positively related with job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job performance, and customer satisfaction. Emerging research also suggests that a third form of emotional labor, natural and genuine emotional labor, is a frequently used emotional labor strategy that has positive effects for both employees and customers. We examine how identity processes shape how employees experience emotional labor, and we maintain that when employees identify with their roles, emotional labor augments and affirms their identity. Person-job fit is an important moderator that influences whether emotional labor enhances or hinders employee well-being. Emotional labor may also have positive outcomes when organizations grant more autonomy and adopt positive display rules that call for the expression of positive emotions. Recent research also indicates that emotional labor strategies may improve leadership effectiveness. Research opportunities on the bright side of emotional labor are abundant.

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Our meta-analysis of emotional intelligence (EI) demonstrates that: First, all three types of EI are significantly related to job satisfaction (ability EI:q = .08; self-report EI:q = .32; and mixed EI:q = .39). Second, both self-report EI and mixed EI exhibit modest yet statistically significant incremental validity (DR 2 = .03 for self-report EI and DR 2 = .06 for mixed EI) and large relative importance (31.3% for self-report EI and 42.8% for mixed EI) in the presence of cognitive ability and personality when predicting job satisfaction. Third, we found mixed support for the moderator effects (i.e., emotional labour demand of jobs) for the relationship between EI and job satisfaction. Fourth, the relationships between all three types of EI and job satisfaction are mediated by state affect and job performance. Fifth, EI significantly relates to organizational commitment (self-report EI:q = .43; mixed EI:q = .43) and turnover intentions (self-report EI:q = À.33). Sixth, after controls, both self-report EI and mixed EI demonstrate incremental validity and relative importance (46.9% for self-report EI; 44.2% for mixed EI) in predicting organizational commitment. Seventh, self-report EI demonstrates incremental validity and relative importance (60.9%) in predicting turnover intentions. Practitioner pointsEmployees with higher emotional intelligence (EI) have higher job satisfaction, higher organizational commitment, and lower turnover intentions. Adding EI measures to the set of personality and cognitive measures currently being used can improve the ability to assess employee job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions. EI improves job satisfaction by helping employees reduce negative feelings, by increasing positive feelings, and/or by improving job performance. To produce productive and satisfied workers, organizations should incorporate EI in employee recruitment, training, and development programmes.