Here, we describe that microenvironmental IL-1␤ and, to a lesser extent, IL-1␣ are required for in vivo angiogenesis and invasiveness of different tumor cells. In IL-1␤ knockout (KO) mice, local tumor or lung metastases of B16 melanoma cells were not observed compared with WT mice. Angiogenesis was assessed by the recruitment of blood vessel networks into Matrigel plugs containing B16 melanoma cells; vascularization of the plugs was present in WT mice, but was absent in IL-1␤ KO mice. The addition of exogenous IL-1 into B16-containing Matrigel plugs in IL-1␤ KO mice partially restored the angiogenic response. Moreover, the incorporation of IL-1 receptor antagonist to B16-containing plugs in WT mice inhibited the ingrowth of blood vessel networks into Matrigel plugs. In IL-1␣ KO mice, local tumor development and induction of an angiogenic response in Matrigel plugs was less pronounced than in WT mice, but significantly higher than in IL-1␤ KO mice. These effects of host-derived IL-1␣ and IL-1␤ were not restricted to the melanoma model, but were also observed in DA͞3 mammary and prostate cancer cell models. In addition to the in vivo findings, IL-1 contributed to the production of vascular endothelial cell growth factor and tumor necrosis factor in cocultures of peritoneal macrophages and tumor cells. Host-derived IL-1 seems to control tumor angiogenesis and invasiveness. Furthermore, the anti-angiogenic effects of IL-1 receptor antagonist, shown here, suggest a possible therapeutic role in cancer, in addition to its current use in rheumatoid arthritis.

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) includes a family of closely related genes; the two major agonistic proteins, IL-1alpha and IL-1beta, are pleiotropic and affect mainly inflammation, immunity and hemopoiesis. The IL-1Ra antagonist is a physiological inhibitor of pre-formed IL-1. Recombinant IL-1alpha and IL-1beta bind to the same receptors and induce the same biological functions. As such, the IL-1 molecules have been considered identical in normal homeostasis and in disease. However, the IL-1 molecules differ in their compartmentalization within the producing cell or the microenvironment. Thus, IL-1beta is solely active in its secreted form, whereas IL-1alpha is mainly active in cell-associated forms (intracellular precursor and membrane-bound IL-1alpha) and only rarely as a secreted cytokine, as it is secreted only in a limited manner. IL-1 is abundant at tumor sites, where it may affect the process of carcinogenesis, tumor growth and invasiveness and also the patterns of tumor-host interactions. Here, we review the effects of microenvironment- and tumor cell-derived IL-1 on malignant processes in experimental tumor models and in cancer patients. We propose that membrane-associated IL-1alpha expressed on malignant cells stimulates anti-tumor immunity, while secretable IL-1beta, derived from the microenvironment or the malignant cells, activates inflammation that promotes invasiveness and also induces tumor-mediated suppression. Inhibition of the function of IL-1 by the IL-1Ra, reduces tumor invasiveness and alleviates tumor-mediated suppression, pointing to its feasibility in cancer therapy. Differential manipulation of IL-1alpha and IL-1beta in malignant cells or in the tumor's microenvironment can open new avenues for using IL-1 in cancer therapy.

The immune system has evolved to protect the host from invading pathogens and to maintain tissue homeostasis. Although the inflammatory process involving pathogens is well documented, the intrinsic compounds that initiate sterile inflammation and how its progression is mediated are still not clear. Because tissue injury is usually associated with ischemia and the accompanied hypoxia, the microenvironment of various pathologies involves anaerobic metabolites and products of necrotic cells. In the current study, we assessed in a comparative manner the role of IL-1α and IL-1β in the initiation and propagation of sterile inflammation induced by products of hypoxic cells. We found that following hypoxia, the precursor form of IL-1α, and not IL-1β, is upregulated and subsequently released from dying cells. Using an inflammation-monitoring system consisting of Matrigel mixed with supernatants of hypoxic cells, we noted accumulation of IL-1α in the initial phase, which correlated with the infiltration of neutrophils, and the expression of IL-1β correlated with later migration of macrophages. In addition, we were able to show that IL-1 molecules from cells transfected with either precursor IL-1α or mature IL-1β can recruit neutrophils or macrophages, respectively. Taken together, these data suggest that IL-1α, released from dying cells, initiates sterile inflammation by inducing recruitment of neutrophils, whereas IL-1β promotes the recruitment and retention of macrophages. Overall, our data provide new insight into the biology of IL-1 molecules as well as on the regulation of sterile inflammation.

IL-1α, like IL-1β, possesses multiple inflammatory and immune properties. However, unlike IL-1β, the cytokine is present intracellularly in healthy tissues and is not actively secreted. Rather, IL-1α translocates to the nucleus and participates in transcription. Here we show that intracellular IL-1α is a chromatin-associated cytokine and highly dynamic in the nucleus of living cells. During apoptosis, IL-1α concentrates in dense nuclear foci, which markedly reduces its mobile nature. In apoptotic cells, IL-1α is retained within the chromatin fraction and is not released along with the cytoplasmic contents. To simulate the in vivo inflammatory response to cells undergoing different mechanisms of death, lysates of cells were embedded in Matrigel plugs and implanted into mice. Lysates from cells undergoing necrosis recruited cells of the myeloid lineage into the Matrigel, whereas lysates of necrotic cells lacking IL-1α failed to recruit an infiltrate. In contrast, lysates of cells undergoing apoptotic death were inactive. Cells infiltrating the Matrigel were due to low concentrations (20-50 pg) of the IL-1α precursor containing the receptor interacting C-terminal, whereas the N-terminal propiece containing the nuclear localization site failed to do so. When normal keratinocytes were subjected to hypoxia, the constitutive IL-1α precursor was released into the supernatant. Thus, after an ischemic event, the IL-1α precursor is released by hypoxic cells and incites an inflammatory response by recruiting myeloid cells into the area. Tissues surrounding the necrotic site also sustain damage from the myeloid cells. Nuclear trafficking and differential release during necrosis vs. apoptosis demonstrate that inflammation by IL-1α is tightly controlled.hypoxia | necrosis | apoptosis | inflammation | alarmin

Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) is abundant in the tumor microenvironment, where this cytokine can promote tumor growth, but also antitumor activities. We studied IL-1β during early tumor progression using a model of orthotopically introduced 4T1 breast cancer cells. Whereas there is tumor progression and spontaneous metastasis in wild-type (WT) mice, in IL-1β–deficient mice, tumors begin to grow but subsequently regress. This change is due to recruitment and differentiation of inflammatory monocytes in the tumor microenvironment. In WT mice, macrophages heavily infiltrate tumors, but in IL-1β–deficient mice, low levels of the chemokine CCL2 hamper recruitment of monocytes and, together with low levels of colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1), inhibit their differentiation into macrophages. The low levels of macrophages in IL-1β–deficient mice result in a relatively high percentage of CD11b+ dendritic cells (DCs) in the tumors. In WT mice, IL-10 secretion from macrophages is dominant and induces immunosuppression and tumor progression; in contrast, in IL-1β–deficient mice, IL-12 secretion by CD11b+ DCs prevails and supports antitumor immunity. The antitumor immunity in IL-1β–deficient mice includes activated CD8+ lymphocytes expressing IFN-γ, TNF-α, and granzyme B; these cells infiltrate tumors and induce regression. WT mice with 4T1 tumors were treated with either anti–IL-1β or anti–PD-1 Abs, each of which resulted in partial growth inhibition. However, treating mice first with anti–IL-1β Abs followed by anti–PD-1 Abs completely abrogated tumor progression. These data define microenvironmental IL-1β as a master cytokine in tumor progression. In addition to reducing tumor progression, blocking IL-1β facilitates checkpoint inhibition.

Although most cytokines are studied for biological effects after engagement of their specific cell surface membrane receptors, increasing evidence suggests that some function in the nucleus. In the present study, the precursor form of IL-1␣ was overexpressed in various cells and assessed for activity in the presence of saturating concentrations of IL-1 receptor antagonist to prevent receptor signaling. Initially diffusely present in the cytoplasm of resting cells, IL-1␣ translocated to the to nucleus after activation by endotoxin, a Toll-like receptor ligand. The IL-1␣ precursor, but not the C-terminal mature form, activated the transcriptional machinery in the GAL4 system by 90-fold; a 50-fold increase was observed using only the IL-1␣ propiece, suggesting that transcriptional activation was localized to the N terminus where the nuclear localization sequence resides. Under conditions of IL-1 receptor blockade, intracellular overexpression of the precursor and propiece forms of IL-1␣ were sufficient to activate NF-B and AP-1. Stable transfectants overproducing precursor IL-1␣ released the cytokines IL-8 and IL-6 but also exhibited a significantly lower threshold of activation to subpicomolar concentrations of tumor necrosis factor ␣ or IFN-␥. Thus, intracellular functions of IL-1␣ might play an unforeseen role in the genesis of inflammation. During disease-driven events, the cytosolic precursor moves to the nucleus, where it augments transcription of proinflammatory genes. Because this mechanism of action is not affected by extracellular inhibitors, reducing intracellular functions of IL-1␣ might prove beneficial in some inflammatory conditions.

During the past decades, anticancer immunotherapy has evolved from a promising therapeutic option to a robust clinical reality. Many immunotherapeutic regimens are now approved by the US Food and Drug Administration and the European Medicines Agency for use in cancer patients, and many others are being investigated as standalone therapeutic interventions or combined with conventional treatments in clinical studies. Immunotherapies may be subdivided into “passive” and “active” based on their ability to engage the host immune system against cancer. Since the anticancer activity of most passive immunotherapeutics (including tumor-targeting monoclonal antibodies) also relies on the host immune system, this classification does not properly reflect the complexity of the drug-host-tumor interaction. Alternatively, anticancer immunotherapeutics can be classified according to their antigen specificity. While some immunotherapies specifically target one (or a few) defined tumor-associated antigen(s), others operate in a relatively non-specific manner and boost natural or therapy-elicited anticancer immune responses of unknown and often broad specificity. Here, we propose a critical, integrated classification of anticancer immunotherapies and discuss the clinical relevance of these approaches.

Tumor cells secreting IL-1β are invasive and metastatic, more than the parental line or control mock-transfected cells, and concomitantly induce in mice general immune suppression of T cell responses. Suppression strongly correlates with accumulation in the peripheral blood and spleen of CD11b+/Gr-1+ immature myeloid cells and hematological alterations, such as splenomegaly, leukocytosis, and anemia. Resection of large tumors of IL-1β-secreting cells restored immune reactivity and hematological alterations within 7–10 days. Treatment of tumor-bearing mice with the physiological inhibitor of IL-1, the IL-1R antagonist, reduced tumor growth and attenuated the hematological alterations. Depletion of CD11b+/Gr-1+ immature myeloid cells from splenocytes of tumor-bearing mice abrogated suppression. Despite tumor-mediated suppression, resection of large tumors of IL-1β-secreting cells, followed by a challenge with the wild-type parental cells, induced resistance in mice; protection was not observed in mice bearing tumors of mock-transfected fibrosarcoma cells. Altogether, we show in this study that tumor-derived IL-1β, in addition to its proinflammatory effects on tumor invasiveness, induces in the host hematological alterations and tumor-mediated suppression. Furthermore, the antitumor effectiveness of the IL-1R antagonist was also shown to encompass restoration of hematological alterations, in addition to its favorable effects on tumor invasiveness and angiogenesis that have previously been described by us.