In this paper, we aim to show the heuristic benefit of Michel Foucault's concept of "governmentality", in order to describe three logics of power and control within digital environments. These three logics -directing, constraining and framing online behaviours -are similar to Foucault's approach to power, which is understood as a means to "lead other people's behaviours", as it is in this case enacted through the mediation of technical resources, such as software, algorithms and operating systems. This paper provides three illustrations of these logics of governmentality: the way in which Google tries to direct webmasters' practices with the help of its SEO guidelines and a webmaster ranking system (governmentality by incentives); the way by which developers constrain online behaviours through websites and software (governmentality by design); the way Apple frames the work of app developers in order to institute specific standards for action and interaction within its iPhone operating system (governmentality by framing).
International audienceSince the early 2000s, the European Commission has put online e-participation and e-government platforms related to various institutional strategies. These participative mechanisms, which are both policy instruments and communication tools for the Commission, are used by activists as political opportunities to make their voices heard by the European institutions. In this paper, we describehow these activists use Web technical resources, and foremost hyperlinks, to mobilize individuals and run online collective actions in order to make their causes public on European scenes. We show that hyperlinks can be considered as aggregative mechanisms which allow individuals to gather around a common project, and that these mobilization practices lead to the constitution of strategic public spheres on the Web
The attacks suffered by France in January and November 2015, and then in the course of 2016, especially the Nice attack, provoked intense online activity both during the events and in the months that followed. The digital traces left by this reactivity and reactions to events gave rise, from the very first days and even hours after the attacks, to a 'real-time' institutional archiving by the National Library of France (Bibliothèque nationale de France, BnF) and the National Audiovisual Institute (Institut national de l'audiovisuel, Ina). The results amount to millions of archived tweets and URLs. This article seeks to highlight some of the most significant issues raised by these relatively unedited corpora, from collection to exploitation, online stream of data to its mediation and re-composition. Indeed, Web archiving practices in times of emergency and crises are significant, almost emblematic, loci to explore the human and technical agencies, and the complex temporalities, of 'born-digital' heritage. The cases examined here emphasize the way these "emergency collections" challenge the perimeters and the very nature of Web archives as part of our digital and societal heritage, and the guiding visions of its governance and mission. Finally, the present analysis emphasizes the need for a careful contextualisation of the design processboth of original web pages or tweets and of their archived imagesand of the tools deployed to collect, retrieve and analyse them.
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