Cyanobacteria are highly abundant in the oceans and are constantly exposed to lytic viruses. The T4-like cyanomyoviruses are abundant in the marine environment and have broad host-ranges relative to other cyanophages. It is currently unknown whether broad host-range phages specifically tailor their infection program for each host, or employ the same program irrespective of the host infected. Also unknown is how different hosts respond to infection by the same phage. Here we used microarray and RNA-seq analyses to investigate the interaction between the Syn9 T4-like cyanophage and three phylogenetically, ecologically and genomically distinct marine Synechococcus strains: WH7803, WH8102 and WH8109. Strikingly, Syn9 led a nearly identical infection and transcriptional program in all three hosts. Different to previous assumptions for T4-like cyanophages, three temporally regulated gene expression classes were observed. Furthermore, a novel regulatory element controlled early-gene transcription, and host-like promoters drove middle gene transcription, different to the regulatory paradigm for T4. Similar results were found for the P-TIM40 phage during infection of Prochlorococcus NATL2A. Moreover, genomic and metagenomic analyses indicate that these regulatory elements are abundant and conserved among T4-like cyanophages. In contrast to the near-identical transcriptional program employed by Syn9, host responses to infection involved host-specific genes primarily located in hypervariable genomic islands, substantiating islands as a major axis of phage-cyanobacteria interactions. Our findings suggest that the ability of broad hostrange phages to infect multiple hosts is more likely dependent on the effectiveness of host defense strategies than on differential tailoring of the infection process by the phage.

Owing to the extreme salinity (B10 times saltier than the oceans), near toxic magnesium levels (B2.0 M Mg 2 þ ), the dominance of divalent cations, acidic pH (6.0) and high-absorbed radiation flux rates, the Dead Sea represents a unique and harsh ecosystem. Measures of microbial presence (microscopy, pigments and lipids) indicate that during rare bloom events after exceptionally rainy seasons, the microbial communities can reach high densities. However, most of the time, when the Dead Sea level is declining and halite is precipitating from the water column, it is difficult to reliably measure the presence of microorganisms and their activities. Although a number of halophilic Archaea have been previously isolated from the Dead Sea, polar lipid analyses of biomass collected during Dead Sea blooms suggested that these isolates were not the major components of the microbial community of these blooms. In this study, in an effort to characterize the perennial microbial community of the Dead Sea and compare it with bloom assemblages, we performed metagenomic analyses of concentrated biomass from hundreds of liters of brine and of microbial material from the last massive Dead Sea bloom. The difference between the two conditions was reflected in community composition and diversity, in which the bloom was different and less diverse from the residual brine population. The distributional patterns of microbial genes suggested Dead Sea community trends in mono-and divalent cation metabolisms as well as in transposable elements. This may indicate possible mechanisms and pathways enabling these microbes to survive in such a harsh environment.

Phosphonates (Pn) are diverse organic phosphorus (P) compounds containing C-P bonds and comprise up to 25% of the high-molecular weight dissolved organic P pool in the open ocean. Pn bioavailability was suggested to influence markedly bacterial primary production in low-P areas. Using metagenomic data from the Global Ocean Sampling expedition, we show that the main potential microbial contributor in Pn utilization in oceanic surface water is the globally important marine primary producer Prochlorococcus. Moreover, a number of Prochlorococcus strains contain two distinct putative Pn uptake operons coding for ABC-type Pn transporters. On the basis of microcalorimetric measurements, we find that each of the two different putative Pn-binding protein (PhnD) homologs transcribed from these operons possesses different Pn-as well as inorganic phosphite-binding specificities. Our results suggest that Prochlorococcus adapt to low-P environments by increasing the number of Pn transporters with different specificities towards phosphite and different Pns.

Offshore waters of the eastern Mediterranean Sea are one of the most oligotrophic regions on Earth in which the primary productivity is phosphorus limited. To study the unexplored function and physiology of microbes inhabiting this system, we have analyzed a genomic library from the eastern Mediterranean Sea surface waters by sequencing both termini of nearly 5000 clones. Genome recruitment strategies showed that the majority of high-scoring pairs corresponded to genomes from the Alphaproteobacteria (SAR11-like and Rhodobacterales), Cyanobacteria (Synechococcus and high-light adapted Prochlorococcus) and diverse uncultured Gammaproteobacteria. The community structure observed, as evaluated by both protein similarity scores or metabolic potential, was similar to that found in the euphotic zone of the ALOHA station off Hawaii but very different from that of deep aphotic zones in both the Mediterranean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. In addition, a strong enrichment toward phosphate and phosphonate uptake and utilization metabolism was also observed.

Enantiopure sulfoxides are valuable asymmetric starting materials and are important chiral auxiliaries in organic synthesis. Toluene monooxygenases (TMOs) have been shown previously to catalyze regioselective hydroxylation of substituted benzenes and phenols. Here we show that TMOs are also capable of performing enantioselective oxidation reactions of aromatic sulfides. Mutagenesis of position V106 in the ␣-hydroxylase subunit of toluene ortho-monooxygenase (TOM) of Burkholderia cepacia G4 and the analogous position I100 in toluene 4-monooxygenase (T4MO) of Pseudomonas mendocina KR1 improved both rate and enantioselectivity. Variant TomA3 V106M of TOM oxidized methyl phenyl sulfide to the corresponding sulfoxide at a rate of 3.0 nmol/min/mg protein compared with 1.6 for the wild-type enzyme, and the enantiomeric excess (pro-S) increased from 51% for the wild type to 88% for this mutant. Similarly, T4MO variant TmoA I100G increased the wild-type oxidation rate by 1.7-fold, and the enantiomeric excess rose from 86% to 98% (pro-S). Both wild-type enzymes showed lower activity with methyl para-tolyl sulfide as a substrate, but the improvement in the activity and enantioselectivity of the mutants was more dramatic. For example, T4MO variant TmoA I100G oxidized methyl para-tolyl sulfide 11 times faster than the wild type did and changed the selectivity from 41% pro-R to 77% pro-S. A correlation between regioselectivity and enantioselectivity was shown for TMOs studied in this work. Using in silico homology modeling, it is shown that residue I100 in T4MO aids in steering the substrate into the active site at the end of the long entrance channel. It is further hypothesized that the main function of V106 in TOM is the proper positioning or docking of the substrate with respect to the diiron atoms. The results from this work suggest that when the substrate is not aligned correctly in the active site, the oxidation rate is decreased and enantioselectivity is impaired, resulting in products with both chiral configurations.

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The asymmetric bio-reduction of 4-chloro-acetoacetic-acid-ethyl-ester to the pharmaceutical building block (S)-4-chloro-3-hydroxybutanoate-ethyl-ester requires the utilization of an enantioselective robust biocatalyst. Some of the natural Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains, isolated from Mount Carmel National Park in Israel, were characterized as resistant to environmental stress. Nevertheless, these strains showed relatively low enantiomeric-excess (ee), while a laboratory strain, Y103, exhibited a selectivity of 98% ee. The enantioselective lab strain was crossed with the multi-stress resistant environmental isolate (93% ee) followed by backcross with Y103, to subsequently obtain a haploid offspring of backcross-1, exhibiting both high multi-stress resistance and high enantioselectivity (98% ee). Introducing osmotic (1 M NaCl), oxidative (0.6 mM H(2)O(2)) and thermal stress (44 degrees C) to growing cultures of the enantioselective parent, resulted in a decrease of 24-32% in specific activity, while the enantioselectivity of the stress-resistant parent decreased by 4-12% ee. Unlike its original parental strains, the new strain maintained constant specific activity and enantioselectivity when introduced to the various stress factors. This work shows that the classic introgression method, can serve as a viable approach for creating a robust enantioselective biocatalyst, designed for industrial production of chiral compounds.

Ecological and economic concerns drive the need to improve feed utilization by domestic animals. Residual feed intake (RFI) is one of the most acceptable measures for feed efficiency (FE). However, phenotyping RFI-related traits is complex and expensive and requires special equipment. Advances in marker technology allow the development of various DNA-based selection tools. To assimilate these technologies for the benefit of RFI-based selection, reliable phenotypic measures are prerequisite. In the current study, we identified single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with RFI phenotypic consistency across different ages and diets (named RFI 1-3), using DNA samples of high or low RFI ranked Holstein calves. Using targeted sequencing of chromosomal regions associated with FE- and RFI-related traits, we identified 48 top SNPs significantly associated with at least one of three defined RFIs. Eleven of these SNPs were harbored by the fatty acid binding protein 4 (FABP4). While 10 significant SNPs found in FABP4 were common for RFI 1 and RFI 3, one SNP (FABP4_5; A