In addition to stimulating the visual system, light incident on the retina stimulates other biological functions, also referred to as non-visual responses. Among the most notable biological functions are human circadian rhythms, which are bodily rhythms that, in constant darkness, oscillate with a period close to, but typically slightly longer than 24 hours. Twenty-four-hour light–dark patterns incident on the retina are the major synchronizer of circadian rhythms to the local time on Earth. Entrainment of circadian rhythms has been implicated in health and well-being. Light can also elicit an acute alerting effect on people, similar to a “cup of coffee.” This review summarizes the literature on how light affects entrainment and alertness and how it can be used to achieve these aims.

A revised computational model of circadian phototransduction is presented. The first step was to characterize the spectral sensitivity of the retinal circuit using suppression of the synthesis of melatonin by the pineal gland at night as the outcome measure. From the spectral sensitivity, circadian light was defined. Circadian light, thereby rectifies any spectral power distribution into a single, instantaneous photometric quantity. The second step was to characterize the circuit’s response characteristic to different amounts of circadian light from threshold to saturation. By doing so a more complete instantaneous photometric quantity representing the circadian stimulus was defined in terms of both the spectral sensitivity and the response magnitude characteristic of the circadian phototransduction circuit. To validate the model of the circadian phototransduction circuit, it was necessary to augment the model to account for different durations of the circadian stimulus and distribution of the circadian stimulus across the retina. Two simple modifications to the model accounted for the duration and distribution of continuous light exposure during the early biological night. A companion paper (https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2020.615305/full) provides a neurophysiological foundation for the model parameters.

This study investigated how light exposure duration affects melatonin suppression, a wellestablished marker of circadian phase, and whether adolescents (13-18 years) are more sensitive to short-wavelength (blue) light than adults (32-51 years). Twenty-four participants (12 adolescents, 12 adults) were exposed to three lighting conditions during successive 4-h study nights that were separated by at least one week. In addition to a dim light (<5 lux) control, participants were exposed to two light spectra (warm (2700 K) and cool (5600 K)) delivering a circadian stimulus of 0.25 at eye level. Repeated measures analysis of variance revealed a significant main effect of exposure duration, indicating that a longer duration exposure suppressed melatonin to a greater degree. The analysis further revealed a significant main effect of spectrum and a significant interaction between spectrum and participant age. For the adolescents, but not the adults, melatonin suppression was significantly greater after exposure to the 5600 K intervention (43%) compared to the 2700 K intervention (29%), suggesting an increased sensitivity to shortwavelength radiation. These results will be used to extend the model of human circadian phototransduction to incorporate factors such as exposure duration and participant age to better predict effective circadian stimulus.

The human circadian system is primarily regulated by the 24-h light-dark cycle incident on the retina, and nocturnal melatonin suppression is a primary outcome measure for characterizing the biological clock's response to those light exposures. A limited amount of data related to the combined effects of light level, spectrum, and exposure duration on nocturnal melatonin suppression has impeded the development of circadian-effective lighting recommendations and light-treatment methods. The study's primary goal was to measure nocturnal melatonin suppression for a wide range of light levels (40-1000 lux), 2 white light spectra (2700 K and 6500 K), and an extended range of nighttime light exposure durations (0.5-3.0 h). The study's second purpose was to examine whether differences existed between adolescents' and adults' circadian sensitivity to these lighting characteristics. The third purpose was to provide an estimate of the absolute threshold for light's impact on acute melatonin suppression. Eighteen adolescents (age range of 13-18 years) and 23 adults (age range of 24-55 years) participated in the study. Results showed significant main effects of light level, spectrum, and exposure duration on melatonin suppression. Moreover, the data also showed that the relative suppressing effect of light on melatonin diminishes with increasing exposure duration for both age groups and both spectra. The present results do not corroborate our hypothesis that adolescents exhibit greater circadian sensitivity to short-wavelength radiation compared to adults. As for threshold, it takes longer to observe significant melatonin suppression at lower CS levels than at higher CS levels. Doseresponse curves (amount and duration) for both white-light spectra and both age groups can guide lighting recommendations when considering circadian-effective light in applications such as offices, schools, residences, and healthcare facilities.