Over the past 40 years the open field has evolved as a commonly used tool for the measurement of animal behavior. This review takes a critical look at the use of this instrument, especially with regard to the development of a standard form for its use. The various procedures and their shortcomings are discussed, with particular reference to the seemingly inconsequential details which have been shown to modulate open-field performance per se. Dependent parameters arc considered both with regard to their reliability and their validity for the measurement of such underlying constructs as emotionality.Since its introduction some 40 years ago, the open-field test has attained the status of one of the most widely used instruments in animal psychology. Its popularity probably stems in large part from the simplicity of the apparatus, the easy and rapid measurement of clearly defined behaviors, and a generally accepted interpretation of these behaviors. In addition, certain of the measured behaviors are sensitive to a wide range of genetic, experiential, physiological, and pharmacological manipulations and are sufficiently reliable under standardized conditions to give repeatable measures on an enormous range of independent variables. Simplicity, ease of quantification, and wide applicability are therefore probably the prime determinants of its popularity.However, in spite of its status as one of the most widely used tests of animal behavior, the open-field test has survived for 40 years with only one major review (Archer, 1973), and this was limited to a-consideration of its usefulness for estimating emotionality in rodents. Apparatus, techniques, subjects, parameters, analyses, and interpretations have We would like to express our gratitude to Otto

Meditation is now one of the most enduring, widespread, and researched of all psychotherapeutic methods. However, to date the meeting of the meditative disciplines and Western psychology has been marred by significant misunderstandings and by an assimilative integration in which much of the richness and uniqueness of meditation and its psychologies and philosophies have been overlooked. Also overlooked have been their major implications for an understanding of such central psychological issues as cognition and attention, mental training and development, health and pathology, and psychological capacities and potentials. Investigating meditative traditions with greater cultural and conceptual sensitivity opens the possibility of a mutual enrichment of both the meditative traditions and Western psychology, with far-reaching benefits for both.

Unhealthy lifestyles are powerful contributors to psychological disorders. However, healthy lifestyles are powerful therapies and can enhance well-being and preserve cognitive capacities. Effective lifestyle factors include nutrition, exercise, nature, relationships, recreation, relaxation and stress management, religious and spiritual involvement, and service to others.

The science of meditation has grown tremendously in the last two decades. Most studies have focused on evaluating the clinical effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions, neural and other physiological correlates of meditation, and individual cognitive and emotional aspects of meditation. Far less research has been conducted on more challenging domains to measure, such as group and relational, transpersonal and mystical, and difficult aspects of meditation; anomalous or extraordinary phenomena related to meditation; and post-conventional stages of development associated with meditation. However, these components of meditation may be crucial to people’s psychological and spiritual development, could represent important mediators and/or mechanisms by which meditation confers benefits, and could themselves be important outcomes of meditation practices. In addition, since large numbers of novices are being introduced to meditation, it is helpful to investigate experiences they may encounter that are not well understood. Over the last four years, a task force of meditation researchers and teachers met regularly to develop recommendations for expanding the current meditation research field to include these important yet often neglected topics. These meetings led to a cross-sectional online survey to investigate the prevalence of a wide range of experiences in 1120 meditators. Results show that the majority of respondents report having had many of these anomalous and extraordinary experiences. While some of the topics are potentially controversial, they can be subjected to rigorous scientific investigation. These arenas represent largely uncharted scientific terrain and provide excellent opportunities for both new and experienced researchers. We provide suggestions for future directions, with accompanying online materials to encourage such research.

No abstract