Although the general mechanisms of lipid oxidation are known, the chemical steps through which photosensitizers and light permeabilize lipid membranes are still poorly understood. Herein we characterized the products of lipid photooxidation and their effects on lipid bilayers, also giving insight into their formation pathways. Our experimental system was designed to allow two phenothiazinium-based photosensitizers (methylene blue, MB, and DO15) to deliver the same amount of singlet oxygen molecules per second to 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl- sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine liposome membranes, but with a substantial difference in terms of the extent of direct physical contact with lipid double bonds; that is, DO15 has a 27-times higher colocalization with ω-9 lipid double bonds than MB. Under this condition, DO15 permeabilizes membranes at least 1 order of magnitude more efficiently than MB, a result that was also valid for liposomes made of polyunsaturated lipids. Quantification of reaction products uncovered a mixture of phospholipid hydroperoxides, alcohols, ketones, and aldehydes. Although both photosensitizers allowed the formation of hydroperoxides, the oxidized products that require direct reactions between photosensitizer and lipids were more prevalent in liposomes oxidized by DO15. Membrane permeabilization was always connected with the presence of lipid aldehydes, which cause a substantial decrease in the Gibbs free energy barrier for water permeation. Processes depending on direct contact between photosensitizers and lipids were revealed to be essential for the progress of lipid oxidation and consequently for aldehyde formation, providing a molecular-level explanation of why membrane binding correlates so well with the cell-killing efficiency of photosensitizers.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in biochemical processes such as redox signaling, aging, carcinogenesis and neurodegeneration. Although biomembranes are targets for reactive oxygen species attack, little is known about the role of their specific interactions. Here, molecular dynamics simulations were employed to determine the distribution, mobility and residence times of various reactive oxygen species at the membrane-water interface. Simulations showed that molecular oxygen (O2) accumulated at the membrane interior. The applicability of this result to singlet oxygen ((1)O2) was discussed. Conversely, superoxide (O2(-)) radicals and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) remained at the aqueous phase. Both hydroxyl (HO) and hydroperoxyl (HO2) radicals were able to penetrate deep into the lipid headgroups region. Due to membrane fluidity and disorder, these radicals had access to potential peroxidation sites along the lipid hydrocarbon chains, without having to overcome the permeation free energy barrier. Strikingly, HO2 radicals were an order of magnitude more concentrated in the headgroups region than in water, implying a large shift in the acid-base equilibrium between HO2 and O2(-). In comparison with O2, both HO and HO2 radicals had lower lateral mobility at the membrane. Simulations revealed that there were intermittent interruptions in the H-bond network around the HO radicals at the headgroups region. This effect is expected to be unfavorable for the H-transfer mechanism involved in HO diffusion. The implications for lipid peroxidation and for the effectiveness of membrane antioxidants were evaluated.

We have studied thin films of the conjugated polymer poly[2-methoxy-5-(2‘-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene] (MEH-PPV), prepared from polymer samples whose weight-average molecular weight (M w) was varied in the broad range of 10−1600 kg/mol. Anisotropic refractive index measurements by means of waveguide prism coupling and reflectometry as well as polarized infrared spectroscopy were used to analyze the polymer chain orientation in the films. We found that the film morphology depends significantly on the molecular weight, especially in the range M w < 400 kg/mol. Thin films of high molecular weight MEH-PPV have most polymer chain segments oriented parallel to the film planein contrast to low molecular weight samples which have nearly random orientation of the chain segments. Appropriate choice of molecular weight enables fine-tuning of the refractive index of slab waveguides and reduction of their mode propagation losses to less than 1 dB/cm.

Phase-separated membrane domains, also known as lipid rafts, are believed to play an important role in cell function. Although most rafts are sterol-enriched membrane regions, evidence suggests that living cells may also contain gel-like rafts. Interactions between gel and fluid domains have a large impact on membrane properties, as is the case with permeability. The membrane permeability may reach a peak at the main phase transition temperature, by far exceeding the values recorded at the fluid phase. It has been proposed that gel-fluid interfaces are leaky, but the effect has not yet been demonstrated at the molecular level. Here, we performed atomistic molecular dynamics simulations of phospholipid bilayers with coexisting gel-like and fluid domains. We found that the thickness mismatch between both phases, the membrane elasticity, and the lipid packing acted together to promote the formation of a thickness minimum at the gel-fluid interface. Free energy calculations showed that pore-mediated ionic permeation was strongly facilitated at the constriction region, whereas water permeation by simple diffusion was only marginally affected. Long-lived, peristaltic undulations were recorded at the bulk fluid phase near the main transition temperature. They gave rise to thickness minima that, although shallower than the interface constrictions, could also enhance permeability. Finally, we demonstrated that an interface constriction was also formed at the boundaries of regular, cholesterol-enriched lipid rafts. Our simulation results will hopefully contribute to a better understanding of biological processes such as transport, signaling, and cellular damage promoted by low temperature and dehydration.

Non-enzymatic lipid peroxidation may change biomembrane structure and function. Here, we employed molecular dynamics simulations to study the effects of either phospholipid or cholesterol peroxidation individually, as well as the combined peroxidation of both components. When lipids were peroxidized, the generated OOH groups migrated to the membrane surface and engaged in H-bonds with each other and the phospholipid carbonyl ester groups. It caused the sn-2 acyl chains of phospholipid hydroperoxides to bend and the whole sterol backbone of cholesterol hydroperoxides to tilt. When phospholipids were kept intact, peroxidation of the sterol backbone led to a partial degradation of its condensing and ordering properties, independently of the position and isomerism of the OOH substitution. However, even in massively peroxidized membranes in which all phospholipids and cholesterol were peroxidized, the condensing and ordering properties of the sterol backbone were still significant. The possible implications for the formation of membrane lateral domains were discussed. Cholesterol peroxyl radicals were also investigated and we found that the OO groups did not migrate to the headgroups region.

Experiments have demonstrated the potential selective anticancer capacity of cold atmospheric plasmas (CAPs), but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Using computer simulations, we try to shed light on the mechanism of selectivity, based on aquaporins (AQPs), i.e., transmembrane protein channels transferring external H 2 O 2 and other reactive oxygen species, created e.g. by CAPs, to the cell interior.Specifically, we perform molecular dynamics simulations for the permeation of H 2 O 2 through AQP1 (one of the members of the AQP family) and the palmitoyl-oleoyl-phosphatidylcholine (POPC) phospholipid bilayer (PLB). The free energy barrier of H 2 O 2 across AQP1 is lower than for the POPC PLB, while the permeability coefficient, calculated using the free energy and diffusion rate profiles, is two orders of magnitude higher. This indicates that the delivery of H 2 O 2 into the cell interior should be through AQP.Our study gives a better insight into the role of AQPs in the selectivity of CAP for treating cancer cells.

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Cold atmospheric plasmas (CAPs) have attracted significant interest for their potential benefits in medical applications, including cancer therapy. The therapeutic effects of CAPs are related to reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS) present in the plasma. The impact of ROS has been extensively studied, but the role of RNS in CAP-treatment remains poorly understood at the molecular level. Here, we investigate the permeation of RNS and ROS across native and oxidized phospholipid bilayers (PLBs) by means of computer simulations. The results reveal significantly lower free energy barriers for RNS (i.e., NO, NO 2 , N 2 O 4) and O 3 compared to hydrophilic ROS, such as OH, HO 2 and H 2 O 2. This suggests that the investigated RNS and O 3 can permeate more easily through both native and oxidized PLBs in comparison to hydrophilic ROS, indicating their potentially important role in plasma medicine. keywords cold atmospheric plasma, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, cell membrane, molecular dynamics, free energy profile