Severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused significant mortality and morbidity worldwide. In children, the acute SARS-CoV-2 infection is often asymptomatic or paucisymptomatic, and life-threatening complications are rare. Nevertheless, there are two long-term consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection in children that raise concern: multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) and long COVID. While the understanding and the experience regarding the acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection have remarkably increased over time, scientific and clinical research is still exploring the long-term effects of COVID-19. In children, data on long COVID are scant. Reports are conflicting regarding its prevalence, duration and impact on daily life. This narrative review explored the latest literature regarding long COVID-19 in the pediatric population. We showed that long COVID in children might be a relevant clinical problem. In most cases, the prognosis is good, but some children may develop long-term symptoms with a significant impact on their daily life. The paucity of studies on long COVID, including a control group of children not infected by SARS-CoV-2, prevents us from drawing firm conclusions. Whether the neuropsychiatric symptoms widely observed in children and adolescents with long COVID are the consequence of SARS-CoV-2 infection or are due to the tremendous stress resulting from the restrictions and the pandemics is still not clear. In both cases, psychological support can play a fundamental role in managing COVID pandemics in children. More knowledge is needed to share a standardized definition of the syndrome and improve its management and treatment.

In patients with cystic fibrosis (CF), multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria can predispose to exacerbations, limit the effectiveness of antibiotic treatments and promote the progression of lung disease. The aim of this retrospective study was to compare pulmonary exacerbations (Pex), hospitalizations, lung function and nutritional status in a group of children and adolescents with CF colonized by MDR bacteria and in a noncolonized control group. Overall, 7/54 pediatric patients (12.9%) were colonized by MDR bacteria and enrolled (3 with Achromobacter xyloxidans, 3 with Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and 1 with Burkholderia cepacia). The control group included 14 sex- and age-matched CF patients (8/14 colonized by Staphylococcus aureus, 2/14 by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 2/14 by both microorganisms and 2/14 germ free). At the time of enrollment and 12 months before the first detection of the MDR microorganism, children colonized by MDR bacteria showed lower body mass index (BMI) and lower FEV1/FVC compared to the control group. Over the previous year before the first detection, children colonized with MDR had more Pex compared to control group; those colonized by S. maltophilia experienced the highest number of Pex. In the 12 months following the first detection of MDR bacteria, all seven patients colonized by MDR had at least one Pex and patients colonized by S. maltophilia had the highest number (mean ± SD: 6 ± 2.6 vs. 1.7 ± 2.3). Our study suggests that CF pediatric patients infected by MDR bacteria have lower BMI, more obstructive disease and experience more exacerbations than patients without MDR bacteria. These differences are present even before being infected, suggesting that children and adolescents with more severe disease are predisposed to be colonized by MDR bacteria. S. maltophilia appeared to be the most aggressive pathogen. Further studies and the implementation of antimicrobial stewardship programs are necessary to clarify when and how to treat patients with CF and MDR bacteria in order to avoid the improper use of antibiotics and the development of antibiotic resistance.

In the last 20 years, gut microbiota in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) has become an object of interest. It was shown that these patients had gut dysbiosis and this could explain not only the intestinal manifestations of the disease but also part of those involving the respiratory tract. The acquisition of previously unknown information about the importance of some bacteria, i.e., those partially or totally disappeared in the gut of CF patients, in the regulation of the activity and function of the gut and the lung was the base to suggest the use of probiotics in CF patients. The main aim of this paper is to discuss the biological basis for probiotic administration to CF patients and which results could be expected. Literature analysis showed that CF intestinal dysbiosis depends on the same genetic mutations that condition the clinical picture of the diseases and is aggravated by a series of therapeutic interventions, such as dietary modifications, the use of antibiotics, and the administration of antacids. All this translates into a significant worsening of the structure and function of organs, including the lung and intestine, already deeply penalized by the genetic alterations of CF. Probiotics can intervene on dysbiosis, reducing the negative effects derived from it. However, the available data cannot be considered sufficient to indicate that these bacteria are essential elements of CF therapy. Further studies that take into account the still unsolved aspects on how to use probiotics are absolutely necessary.

Patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) are prone to malnutrition and growth failure, mostly due to malabsorption caused by the derangement in the chloride transport across epithelial surfaces. Thus, optimal nutritional care and support should be an integral part of the management of the disease, with the aim of ameliorating clinical outcomes and life expectancy. In this report, we analyzed the nutrition support across the different ages, in patients with CF, with a focus on the relationships with growth, nutritional status, disease outcomes and the use of the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) modulators. The nutrition support goal in CF care should begin as early as possible after diagnosis and include the achievement of an optimal nutritional status to support the growth stages and puberty development in children, that will further support the maintenance of an optimal nutritional status in adult life. The cornerstone of nutrition in patients with CF is a high calorie, high-fat diet, in conjunction with a better control of malabsorption due to pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy, and attention to the adequate supplementation of fat-soluble vitamins. When the oral caloric intake is not enough for reaching the anthropometric nutritional goals, supplemental enteral feeding should be initiated to improve growth and the nutritional status. In the last decade, the therapeutic possibilities towards CF have grown in a consistent way. The positive effects of CFTR modulators on nutritional status mainly consist in the improvement in weight gain and BMI, both in children and adults, and in an amelioration in terms of the pulmonary function and reduction of exacerbations. Several challenges need to be overcome with the development of new drugs, to transform CF from a fatal disease to a treatable chronic disease with specialized multidisciplinary care.

Wheezing at preschool age (i.e., before the age of six) is common, occurring in about 30% of children before the age of three. In terms of health care burden, preschool children with wheeze show double the rate of access to the emergency department and five times the rate of hospital admissions compared with school-age asthmatics. The consensus document aims to analyse the underlying mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of preschool wheezing and define the risk factors (i.e., allergy, atopy, infection, bronchiolitis, genetics, indoor and outdoor pollution, tobacco smoke exposure, obesity, prematurity) and the protective factors (i.e., probiotics, breastfeeding, vitamin D, influenza vaccination, non-specific immunomodulators) associated with the development of the disease in the young child. A multidisciplinary panel of experts from the Emilia-Romagna Region, Italy, addressed twelve key questions regarding managing preschool wheezing. Clinical questions have been formulated by the expert panel using the PICO format (Patients, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes). Systematic reviews have been conducted on PubMed to answer these specific questions and formulate recommendations. The GRADE approach has been used for each selected paper to assess the quality of the evidence and the degree of recommendations. Based on a panel of experts and extensive updated literature, this consensus document provides insight into the pathogenesis, risk and protective factors associated with the development and persistence of preschool wheezing. Undoubtedly, more research is needed to improve our understanding of the disease and confirm the associations between certain factors and the risk of wheezing in early life. In addition, preventive strategies must be promoted to avoid children’s exposure to risk factors that may permanently affect respiratory health.