It was hypothesized that the salience of group membership might be aroused implicitly by cues provided in the objective situation without the explicit reminders of group membership used in previous research. Further, that by merely varying the number of persons of each sex, in an aggregate responding to a questionnaire which included material relevant to the sex group norms, the salience of the norms of the respective groups would be aroused, and these norms would influence responses to the relevant material. Subjects responded anonymously to a questionnaire dealing with attitudes toward feminism and toward child rearing, under three conditions of group composition, with either a male or female experimenter. The hypothesis was clearly supported for males but not for females. That is, males' responses on feminist items varied significantly over the conditions of group composition, but females' did not. Responses to the child-rearing items did not vary for either sex over conditions of group composition. The pattern of results for male subjects was accounted for as the result of the resolution of conflicting norms -chauvinism and chivalry. The relevance of this experiment to methodological procedures is indicated, it being stressed that in the administration of group questionnaires, even though anonymous, neither the characteristics of the individuals composing the aggregate nor those of the administrator could be ignored.
Deutsch and Krauss report that when throat in the form of gates is available in a bargaining situation it will create a spiral of threat, counterthreat, and competitiveness which increases the difficulty of reaching any agreement. 2 experiments were conducted to test this interpretation and offer alternative suggestions for the effects of threat in bargaining. 40 dyads were used in the 1st experiment to study the effects of gates with and without the alternate paths. The results indicate that without the alternate paths the gates have a detrimental effect only initially. The final level of payoff in this condition is comparable to those conditions without the gates. Ss not permitted by the alternate path to leave the interaction learn to cooperate despite the gates. In order to determine more clearly the effects of threat as distinct from a means of inflicting harm, 16 dyads were provided with 1 response expressing threat and another expressing fine, and 16 were not. No alternate path was provided. Payoff was not significantly different between the threat and no-threat condition. Giving persons a means of expressing an intent to inflict harm does not in itself lead to lower payoffs. Indeed, some Ss used the threat as a means of communication to facilitate their coordination.
In view of the great volume of wntmg and research mspired by Fromm's (1941) discourse on the authoritarian personahty and the work of Adomo, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levmson, and Sanford (1950), it IS surpnsmg that students of personality and persuasibihty have given relatively httle attention to this important charactenstic of personality The authoritarian has been descnbed as havmg "a poorly differentiated and mtegrated conceptual system or self structure, which mmimizes the self as a causal agent m transaction with the environment" (Harvey & Beverly, 1961) The authoritarian should be more dependent than the nonauthoritarian individual would be on external cntena for definmg reahty and for evaluatmg his environment Particularly relevant m this regard is the observation by Fromm (and others) of the authontarian's charactenstic admiration, deference toward, dependence on, and submission to authonty and authonty figures These feehngs are assumed to be coupled with repressed hostihty and defiance toward such power figures (Fromm, 1941, pp 168-169) Takmg similar considerations mto accoimt, Wagman (1955, p 5) theorized that "an mdividual with an authoritarian personality structure readily submits his cognitive and perceptual organization to modification under pressure from persons occupymg positions of high potential" Wagman used a presentation of the reputed views of busmess executives and miltary commanders to produce authoritative suggestion He found substantial support for his hypothesis in the context of changes m his more authontarian subjects' attitudes toward Negroes Subsequent mvestigations usmg authoritative inffuence have been less successful Lmton and Craham (1959), usmg "scientific authorities,"
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