The material-energy balance developed in this study has been used successfully to match performance and to forecast production for the Wairakei geothermal field of New Zealand. The equations should be applicable to other geothermal fluid reservoirs, provided the assumptions used are realistic. Introduction The basic study from which this paper was prepared was started as the result of the growing need throughout the world for increasing quantities of energy in all forms. Quite obviously, natural forms of energy that are readily available at low development cost are those in greatest demand. The underdeveloped countries - and particularly those having little or no petroleum resources - are the countries in which the most interest is being shown in the newer energy sources. One of the least expensive energy sources is natural geothermal steam. Although this form of energy has been recognized for centuries, it has been only during the past 20 years that serious efforts have been made to harness it. Natural geothermal steam energy in Italy, New Zealand, Mexico, Japan, and California is now being produced through wells to drive turbines and generate electricity. Further, active exploration for natural geothermal steam is being conducted in Hawaii, Fiji, Taiwan, Chile, Russia, Greece, and Katanga. It is surprising to find that most geothermal steam exploration is in the "steam seep" stage. That is, surface studies are made and exploratory wells are drilled in the general area of steam seeps. However, in the larger geothermal steam areas, there have been efforts to apply the most modern geological and reservoir engineering principles in order to define the reservoir parameters, particularly those relating to estimates of reserves and future productivity. This paper is concerned with the development of appropriate equations and techniques to facilitate these estimates. Production of natural steam or hot water presents problems different from those experienced in the production of oil and gas. For example, steam or hot water systems may be essentially single-component systems, while hydrocarbon systems are most frequently multicomponent fluid systems. Heat effects are much larger for water than for hydrocarbon systems; and the natural steam production may or may not be isothermal, while production of petroleum reservoirs is considered normally to be isothermal. Petroleum reservoir engineering principles may be applied to natural steam or hot water reservoirs if the inherent differences in the systems are considered. The basic considerations involved in geothermal steam reservoir engineering are: thermodynamics, physical and thermal properties of water, materials and energy balances, fluid influx, and performance matching and predicting. Thermodynamics Fig. 1 is a pressure-temperature diagram for the liquid-vapor region for pure water, showing the critical point and five other points representing possible initial conditions for a geothermal steam reservoir. JPT P. 893ˆ

A TYPICAL drilling mud from the Hastings oil field, Brazoria County, Texas, containing only 8 per cent (dry basis) of material of colloidal dimensions, which is largely illite, was concentrated to a density of 10.2 lb. per gal. and used in this study. The effects of water dilution, treatment with complex polyphosphates, temperature and the time of heating upon the rheological properties of the mud were investigated. It was found that water plays an important part in chemical treatment and that sodium acid pyrophosphate and sodium tripolyphosphate were more efficient than other complex polyphosphates for chemical treatment. Muds treated with either of these chemicals manifested maximum reduction in viscosity and minimum filtration rates at low concentrations. Furthermore, mud treated to minimum viscosity with either of these two chemicals was virtually unaffected by heat-treatment.

Petroleum Engineering educational programs produce graduates Petroleum Engineering educational programs produce graduates primarily for the upstream sector of the petroleum industry. This primarily for the upstream sector of the petroleum industry. This paper will present a summary of both the undergraduate and paper will present a summary of both the undergraduate and graduate petroleum engineering programs in the United States. The undergraduate portion of the paper will address the curriculum, accreditation, enrollments, student recruitment, faculty, jobs, starting salaries, and a historical perspective. The graduate section will address both master and doctoral level programs including the number and size of programs, curriculum, programs including the number and size of programs, curriculum, admission requirements, program administration, jobs, salaries, and a historical perspective. PETROLEUM ENGINEERING EDUCATION HISTORY PETROLEUM ENGINEERING EDUCATION HISTORY Even though John Franklin Carl is often called the "father of petroleum engineering", Israel C. White in the late 1880's is petroleum engineering", Israel C. White in the late 1880's is recognized by some as the first practicing petroleum engineer in the Pennsylvania and West Virginia oil fields. Professional petroleum geologists were employed as early as 1897, in petroleum geologists were employed as early as 1897, in California and later in the Gulf Coast of Texas, Mexico and Oklahoma, and recognized the need for scientifically trained personnel in petroleum production. personnel in petroleum production. In the early 1900's, with the rapid growth of the petroleum industry and the encouragement of the scientifically trained individuals engaged in petroleum production, programs of study in petroleum technology were organized by the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers and the U.S. Geological Survey and later the U. S. Bureau of Mines. Formal studies in petroleum technology were offered by the University of Pittsburgh as early, as 1910 and the first petroleum engineering degrees were conferred in 1915 from this institution. As exploration and production of petroleum expanded throughout the U.S., petroleum engineering departments were organized. Eight universities initiated petroleum engineering programs during the decade 1910–1920; 12 in 1920–1930; and 10 during 1930–1960. Initially, petroleum engineering programs consisted of liberal arts, basic science and mathematics courses supplemented by applied geological courses and petroleum equipment and production courses. Then engineering science courses of statics, dynamics, fluid mechanics and thermodynamics were integrated into the program. Still later in the 1930's emphasis in specialized program. Still later in the 1930's emphasis in specialized petroleum courses shifted from the rock matrix to the pore space, petroleum courses shifted from the rock matrix to the pore space, pore fluid system and the productive mechanism pore fluid system and the productive mechanism During the period 1935–1945, phase behavior of reservoir fluids research coupled with the fundamental characteristics of fluid flow research provided the foundation for petroleum reservoir engineering. Graduate studies in petroleum engineering developed as early petroleum field discoveries began to be depleted. Hence, it was petroleum field discoveries began to be depleted. Hence, it was only natural that such programs were initiated in Pennsylvania, followed by California, then the mid-continent area and finally by the Gulf Coast area. By 1958 the northeastern petroleum universities, primarily the University of Pittsburgh and Penn State University had granted 206 graduate degrees, the California universities 149, the mid-continent 207 and the Gulf Coast 161. Since 1945 modern petroleum engineering programs have incorporated the evolution of highly sophisticated technology in drilling, down hole logging, formation evaluation, transient well testing and production operations, imaging, artificial intelligence, the use of reservoir simulation and high speed computers, etc. in their curriculum courses. UNDERGRADUATE PETROLEUM ENGINEERING PROGRAMS PROGRAMS Unique Scope of Petroleum Engineering Undergraduate Education Petroleum engineering students are unequally trained primarily for Petroleum engineering students are unequally trained primarily for the upstream sector of the petroleum industry. However, this does not imply that they cannot perform well in other engineering jobs. Training areas that distinguish petroleum engineering graduates from other engineering graduates include: P. 817

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WHITING, ROBERT L., A and M COLLEGE OF TEXAS, COLLEGE STATION, TEX. MEMBER AIME Herman Schneider, U. of Cincinnati, is considered to be the father of U.S. cooperative education, since he initiated the first known program in 1906. Schneider believed that a combination of industrial experience and academic study would make education richer and more meaningful. To this day, there are a few who will disagree with this observation. Recent studies by others have established that the combination of work and study:Increases the students' motivation.Contributes to a greater sense of responsibility for their own efforts.Develops a greater dependence upon ones own judgment and a corresponding development of maturity.Contributes to a better understanding of other people and the development of greater skills in human relations, helping to break down the segmentation of college students into a wholly adolescent community.Helps to acquaint the student with industrial work and the function of occupation in providing the wide range of goods and services characteristic of our economy.Provides the student with information relative to the range of job opportunities, qualification requirements and the potentials and limitations not only of his own field of interest but also of associated fields.Makes possible higher education to those qualified scholastically but financially prohibited, and also to those who are skeptical of the value of "book learning" and of their own potential for college work.Contributes to faculty development and improvement through close association with industry.Utilizes more efficiently the college physical plant and faculty because of the rotation of students between college and industry.Contributes to better understanding of education problems by industry personnel and provides a means of attracting and maintaining a flow of trained personnel who have been observed and tested during their educational program.Contributes to a better understanding and recognition of a college's function by the surrounding community, frequently resulting in improved moral and financial support. Only 5 per cent of the U.S. colleges and universities offering first degrees have cooperative education programs; however, there are thousands of students presently enrolled in cooperative programs in over 70 degree granting institutions offering such programs. Also, hundreds of technical institutes, junior colleges and secondary schools are expanding their programs in this area. At the university level, the great majority of programs are in engineering while those at the secondary school level are directed toward technical and commercial training. Although this type of education and process is fundamentally sound, its growth has been retarded because of inability to implement it properly into industrial and academic objectives. Simply speaking, cooperative education is a process combining work and study as an integral part of the education program. Hence, it is implied that work and study will be alternated. For the student who is working his way through college in a large industrial city, this alternation may be on an hourly or daily basis. For example, he may attend college 4 hours daily and work an 8-hour graveyard shift. On the other hand, there are students having the same education objective who are going to school full time for nine months and then are working full time for 15 months. These two examples, however, must be considered as special cases, but they indicate that a work-study program may be established to fit any one particular individual. There are a great variety of cooperative educational programs in the U.S. at this time. In some programs, the student must participate through his entire college career, and in others, the student may commence his participation at any time. Some programs are open to all students, while in others, participation is restricted to honor students. Students and faculty who have participated in well-planned cooperative education programs agree that:there is no difference between the creativity, imagination, realism, and social and cultural activity of cooperative and conventional program students;there are few, if any, problems associated with the rotation between industry and college;in most cases, one extra year is required to complete the first degree; andthis is not a disadvantage because starting salaries are higher for the cooperative education students than for those students with conventional education plus one year of experience. Experience has shown that cooperative education is not a cheap means of obtaining trained personnel, but it can be a highly effective one. Careful planning by both education and industry is required to minimize costs and to achieve the objectives of this type training. Both education and industry must be cognizant of the advantages of such a program. The representatives from these areas must be charged with the responsibility for coordinating the efforts of the participants. The primary concern of these representatives must be in planning a work-study program that will fulfill the requirements of the participants and at the same time serve the interests of the student. Of serious concern is the coordination of theory and practice, and the succession of job assignments for the student. P. 611^