The postnatal effects of in utero exposure to perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS, C8F17SO3-) were evaluated in the rat and mouse. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were given 1, 2, 3, 5, or 10 mg/kg PFOS daily by gavage from gestation day (GD) 2 to GD 21; pregnant CD-1 mice were treated with 1, 5, 10, 15, and 20 mg/kg PFOS from GD 1 to GD 18. Controls received 0.5% Tween-20 vehicle (1 ml/kg for rats and 10 ml/kg for mice). At parturition, newborns were observed for clinical signs and survival. All animals were born alive and initially appeared to be active. In the highest dosage groups (10 mg/kg for rat and 20 mg/kg for mouse), the neonates became pale, inactive, and moribund within 30-60 min, and all died soon afterward. In the 5 mg/kg (rat) and 15 mg/kg (mouse) dosage groups, the neonates also became moribund but survived for a longer period of time (8-12 h). Over 95% of these animals died within 24 h. Approximately 50% of offspring died at 3 mg/kg for rat and 10 mg/kg for mouse. Cross-fostering the PFOS-exposed rat neonates (5 mg/kg) to control nursing dams failed to improve survival. Serum concentrations of PFOS in newborn rats mirrored the maternal administered dosage and were similar to those in the maternal circulation at GD 21; PFOS levels in the surviving neonates declined in the ensuing days. Small but significant and persistent growth lags were detected in surviving rat and mouse pups exposed to PFOS prenatally, and slight delays in eye opening were noted. Significant increases in liver weight were observed in the PFOS-exposed mouse pups. Serum thyroxine levels were suppressed in the PFOS-treated rat pups, although triiodothyronine and thyroid-stimulating hormone [TSH] levels were not altered. Choline acetyltransferase activity (an enzyme that is sensitive to thyroid status) in the prefrontal cortex of rat pups exposed to PFOS prenatally was slightly reduced, but activity in the hippocampus was not affected. Development of learning, determined by T-maze delayed alternation in weanling rats, was not affected by PFOS exposure. These results indicate that in utero exposure to PFOS severely compromised postnatal survival of neonatal rats and mice, and caused delays in growth and development that were accompanied by hypothyroxinemia in the surviving rat pups.

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), a member of the perfluoroalkyl acids that have wide commercial applications, has recently been detected in humans and wildlife. The current study characterizes the developmental toxicity of PFOA in the mouse. Timed-pregnant CD-1 mice were given 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, or 40 mg/kg PFOA by oral gavage daily from gestational day (GD) 1 to 17; controls received an equivalent volume (10 ml/kg) of water. PFOA treatment produced dose-dependent full-litter resorptions; all dams in the 40-mg/kg group resorbed their litters. Weight gain in dams that carried pregnancy to term was significantly lower in the 20-mg/kg group. At GD 18, some dams were sacrificed for maternal and fetal examinations (group A), and the rest were treated once more with PFOA and allowed to give birth (group B). Postnatal survival, growth, and development of the offspring were monitored. PFOA induced enlarged liver in group A dams at all dosages, but did not alter the number of implantations. The percent of live fetuses was lower only in the 20-mg/kg group (74 vs. 94% in controls), and fetal weight was also significantly lower in this group. However, no significant increase in malformations was noted in any treatment group. The incidence of live birth in group B mice was significantly lowered by PFOA: ca. 70% for the 10- and 20-mg/kg groups compared to 96% for controls. Postnatal survival was severely compromised at 10 or 20 mg/kg, and moderately so at 5 mg/kg. Dose-dependent growth deficits were detected in all PFOA-treated litters except the 1-mg/kg group. Significant delays in eye-opening (up to 2-3 days) were noted at 5 mg/kg and higher dosages. Accelerated sexual maturation was observed in male offspring, but not in females. These data indicate maternal and developmental toxicity of PFOA in the mouse, leading to early pregnancy loss, compromised postnatal survival, delays in general growth and development, and sex-specific alterations in pubertal maturation.

The maternal and developmental toxicities of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS, C8F17SO3-) were evaluated in the rat and mouse. PFOS is an environmentally persistent compound used as a surfactant and occurs as a degradation product of both perfluorooctane sulfonyl fluoride and substituted perfluorooctane sulfonamido components found in many commercial and consumer applications. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were given 1, 2, 3, 5, or 10 mg/kg PFOS daily by gavage from gestational day (GD) 2 to GD 20; CD-1 mice were similarly treated with 1, 5, 10, 15, and 20 mg/kg PFOS from GD 1 to GD 17. Controls received 0.5% Tween-20 vehicle (1 ml/kg for rats and 10 ml/kg for mice). Maternal weight gain, food and water consumption, and serum chemistry were monitored. Rats were euthanized on GD 21 and mice on GD 18. PFOS levels in maternal serum and in maternal and fetal livers were determined. Maternal weight gains in both species were suppressed by PFOS in a dose-dependent manner, likely attributed to reduced food and water intake. Serum PFOS levels increased with dosage, and liver levels were approximately fourfold higher than serum. Serum thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) in the PFOS-treated rat dams were significantly reduced as early as one week after chemical exposure, although no feedback response of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) was observed. A similar pattern of reduction in T4 was also seen in the pregnant mice. Maternal serum triglycerides were significantly reduced, particularly in the high-dose groups, although cholesterol levels were not affected. In the mouse dams, PFOS produced a marked enlargement of the liver at 10 mg/kg and higher dosages. In the rat fetuses, PFOS was detected in the liver but at levels nearly half of those in the maternal counterparts, regardless of administered doses. In both rodent species, PFOS did not alter the numbers of implantations or live fetuses at term, although small deficits in fetal weight were noted in the rat. A host of birth defects, including cleft palate, anasarca, ventricular septal defect, and enlargement of the right atrium, were seen in both rats and mice, primarily in the 10 and 20 mg/kg dosage groups, respectively. Our results demonstrate both maternal and developmental toxicity of PFOS in the rat and mouse.

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) displays complicated pharmacokinetics in that serum concentrations indicate long half-lives despite which steady state appears to be achieved rapidly. In this study, serum and tissue concentration time-courses were obtained for male and female CD1 mice after single, oral doses of 1 and 10 mg/kg of PFOA. When using one- and two-compartment models, the pharmacokinetics for these two dosages are not consistent with serum time-course data from female CD1 mice administered 60 mg/kg, or with serum concentrations following repeated daily doses of 20 mg/kg PFOA. Some consistency between dose regimens could be achieved using the saturable resorption model of Andersen et al. In this model PFOA is cleared from the serum into a filtrate compartment from which it is either excreted or resorbed into the serum by a process presumed transporter mediated with a Michaelis-Menten form. Maximum likelihood estimation found a transport maximum of T(m) = 860.9 (1298.3) mg/l/h and half-maximum concentration of K(T) = 0.0015 (0.0022) mg/l where the estimated standard errors (in parentheses) indicated large uncertainty. The estimated rate of flow into and out of the filtrate compartment, 0.6830 (1.0131) l/h was too large to be consistent with a biological interpretation. For these model parameters a single dose greater than 40 mg/kg, or a daily dose in excess of 5 mg/kg were necessary to observe nonlinear pharmacokinetics for PFOA in female CD1 mice. These data and modeling analyses more fully characterize PFOA in mice for purposes of estimating internal exposure for use in risk assessment.

Field trials were conducted to identify effective methods of increasing selenium (Se) in wheat (Triticum aestivum) grown on low-Se soils in Canterbury, New Zealand. Various rates (5-20g Se/ha) and methods (soil-applied fertiliser, seed treatment, foliar application at flowering) of applying Se (sodium selenate) were evaluated in autumn-and spring-sown crops on an irrigated site at Wakanui and on a dryland site at Methven. Several Se fertiliser treatments were included to examine the effects of timing of application (Se applied at sowing or growth stage 31) and to determine whether applying other fertilisers (superphosphate, urea) with Se would affectits uptake. Two cultivars were grown in the autumn and spring trials at each location. Grain Se content averaged 0.03 mg/kg in the controls (no Se added), increasing to 0.4-0.5 mg/kg where Se was added at 20g/ha using the most effective application methods-foliar spray and fertiliser at growth stage 31. Fertiliser at sowing was less effective in raising grain Se than fertiliser at growth stage 31, particularly for autumn-sown crops. The results suggested that the plant availability of applied Se can decrease rapidly in the soil and, to be most effective, fertiliser Se should be applied when the crop is beginning to grow rapidly in spring. Grain Se levels for the irrigated site were close to those in the corresponding treatment at the dryland site, even though yield was much greater where irrigation was H06058; used. Application of superphosphate (200kg/ha) or urea (100kg/ha) did not have a large or consistent effect on grain Se. Cultivar effects on grain Se were either small or not significant. For the most effective application methods (fertiliser at growth stage 31; foliar spray), grain Se increased by c. 0.02 mg/kg for an increase in Se rate of 1 g/ha.