This paper gives an overview of the beliefs in demons as perceived by the ancient Egyptians during the later phases of the Pharaonic period and under the Greco and Roman rule. It focuses in particular on the so-called "guardian demons" represented and named on the walls of the Ptolemaic temples such as the temple of Hathor at Dendera. These figures of protectors are in fact later reinterpretations of the demonic guardians of the doors and regions of the netherworld as described in the so-called Book of the Dead. Through this and other examples taken from iconographic and textual sources mentioning demons, it is discussed how the conception and ritual practices concerning "demons" changes significantly in Greco-Roman Egypt as compared to the earlier Pharaonic period.
This essay provides a general introduction to demonology in antiquity as well as a focus on ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. It is also meant as an introduction to those papers which were originally presented at the international conference titled "Evil Spirits, Monsters and Benevolent Protectors: Demonology in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia," held on April 23, 2012 at the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World of New York University, contained in the first section of this volume. Questions of the definition and function of demons in ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations are raised and discussed in light of a comparative approach to the study of ancient religions.If we intend "demonology" as a scholarly discourse about demons,¹ a few main questions arise: can we speak at all about "demons" in pre-Christian religions? Does it make sense to compare religious beliefs in order to recognize common features and organized descriptions of supernatural creatures other than the gods? Do we have enough comparative evidence to identify "demonology", as a general phenomenon, in the ancient world? Among the religious cultures of the ancient Mediterranean world, those of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia provide abundant textual and iconographic information in order to answer the questions above and explore the many underlying religious and social implications of beliefs in demons in antiquity.
In this article, the main figures of divine and demonic beings mentioned in the Book of the Dead spells and vignettes are listed and discussed in light of the current studies on the ancient Egyptian funerary religion and beliefs. The function that major and minor deities and supernatural beings play in relation to the deceased, to her/his wish for protection and divine transfiguration in the netherworld will especially be examined. The ontological difference between divine and demonic agency in the ancient Egyptian religion, in particular in relation to the ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead, is also discussed in the final section of the article.
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