Using a combination of exploratory and traditional approaches, we replicate and extend previous research on creativity and memory effects. The fi rst study examines creativity's effect on advertising recall using two nontraditional media: airport terminal and preshow cinema advertising. Results suggest that differences in how consumers interact with nontraditional media infl uence the effect of advertising creativity on memory. For cinema advertising, where media consumption is similar to traditional media, creativity enhanced recall. For airport advertising, where media consumption often occurs when consumers are in a distracted state, creativity had no effect. The second study continues this investigation of exposure context and extends previous creativity research by investigating the recognition dependent variable in a forcedexposure context. Recognition is measured at four time-delay intervals: no delay and delays of one-week, three-weeks, and fi ve-weeks. Creative advertising was found to enhance recognition, and this positive effect increased over time.

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The growth and success of outdoor advertising is in large part due to the medium's ability to reach an increasingly elusive and mobile consumer. However, this success has come with a price. Public pressure and regulation have begun to eliminate or curtail many outdoor advertising locations, leading practitioners to question the effectiveness of the remaining outdoor advertising sites. Using associative learning techniques, these studies investigate what effect, if any, the environment in which outdoor advertising appears has on the attitudes, beliefs, and purchase intent of the advertised brand. The results of four experiments presented here suggest that the background environment does not impact advertising effectiveness, and practitioner concern of such may be unfounded.

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Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to examine and compare the validity of different operationalizations of cultural and institutional distance. Design/methodology/approach -First, a review of the theoretical background for Hofstede's, Schwartz's, Trompenaars's, and Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness' (GLOBE) cultural frameworks is provided, as well as the institutional environment. Then, the validity of each framework is assessed by evaluating how well each framework groups countries into appropriate clusters, and finally comparisons between the different frameworks are drawn. Findings -It was found that the cultural distance (CD) constructs based on Hofstede and Trompenaars have strong convergent validity. CD constructs based on Schwartz and GLOBE are found to have the weakest validity. The institutional distance (ID) constructs are conceptualized to be broader than the traditional CD constructs. However, high correlations indicate a strong overlap between ID and CD. Additionally, the ID constructs are highly correlated with factors related to economic development, potentially limiting their usefulness. Originality/value -Both researchers and practitioners can choose from a variety of CD/ID frameworks to fill their needs; however, variance in the performance between frameworks may lead to faulty conclusions. In response to this need to accurately capture cross-cultural differences, the validity of nine different operationalizations of CD/ID have been examined. Contrary to popular belief, the traditional CD construct based on Hofstede is shown to compare favorably with other frameworks and calls for the abandonment of this index may be premature.