The evaluation of conservation programs is rare but increasingly important in improving their effectiveness. Regular evaluations of conservation programs and the implementation of recommendations resulting from such assessments are infrequent because of resistance by participants and lack of funding. Evaluations may be internal or external, depending on the purpose of the review and how broadly it is focused. We strongly recommend external peer review of long‐term complex conservation programs every 5 years, supported by more frequent (annual) internal reviews. Criteria for success must encompass both biological and social measures and include learning and the application of new knowledge to management. Evaluations must also go beyond monitoring to assess the value of the program. We emphasize the need to include the organization and function of a conservation program (the process) in any evaluation in addition to substantive criteria for success, which usually involve biological measures (numbers). A dysfunctional program organization and process can as effectively cripple a conservation effort as can a major biological catastrophe. We provide examples of different types of conservation program evaluations, including moderated workshops and case‐study analysis, and provide advice on the logistics and organization of the review, emphasizing the importance of the evaluation process itself to a successful outcome. One important aspect of an evaluation is having an individual with leadership ability and considerable expertise to organize the format and oversee the review process itself. Second, it is essential at the outset to ensure agreement among the program participants and the review committee on the goals and objectives of the conservation program, what is to be evaluated, and the criteria for defining success. Finally, the best evaluations are inclusive and involve all participants and stakeholders.

The goal of this study was to follow ceftiofur-treated and untreated cattle in a normally functioning dairy to examine enteric Escherichia coli for changes in antibiotic resistance profiles and genetic diversity. Prior to treatment, all of the bacteria cultured from the cows were susceptible to ceftiofur. Ceftiofur-resistant E. coli was only isolated from treated cows during and immediately following the cessation of treatment, and the 12 bla CMY-2 -positive isolates clustered into two genetic groups. E. coli bacterial counts dropped significantly in the treated animals (P < 0.027), reflecting a disappearance of the antibiotic-susceptible strains. The resistant bacterial population, however, did not increase in quantity within the treated cows; levels stayed low and were overtaken by a returning susceptible population. There was no difference in the genetic diversities of the E. coli between the treated and untreated cows prior to ceftiofur administration or after the susceptible population of E. coli returned in the treated cows. A cluster analysis of antibiotic susceptibility profiles resulted in six clusters, two of which were multidrug resistant and were comprised solely of isolates from the treated cows immediately following treatment. The antibiotic treatment provided a window to detect the presence of ceftiofur-resistant E. coli but did not appear to cause its emergence or result in its amplification. The finding of resistant isolates following antibiotic treatment is not sufficient to estimate the strength of selection pressure nor is it sufficient to demonstrate a causal link between antibiotic use and the emergence or amplification of resistance.

A field study was conducted to evaluate the influence of milking frequency (3 or 6 times/d [3x or 6x, respectively]) during the initial 21 d of lactation on milk and milk component yield and mammary gland health as indicated by somatic cell count. During 2 seasons, spring and fall, multiparous cows were milked 6 times/d until d 21 of lactation and then returned to the 3 times/d frequency for the remainder of lactation (6x; n = 9). Multiparous cows milked 3 times/d from the beginning of lactation served as a control group (3x; n = 17). With the exception of milking frequency, all other aspects of management, including housing, milk harvesting, and feeding, were identical between the groups and were consistent with industry norms. Retrospective analysis of Dairy Herd Improvement Association records was used to evaluate milk yield, milk component yield, and somatic cell scores. As expected, 6x cows produced more milk on the first test day than 3x cows. Compared with 3x cows, higher milk yields persisted for 6x cows from test day 2 through 6, indicating a persistent effect of early lactation milking frequency on milk yield potential for that lactation. Milk component yield followed a similar pattern: 6x cows produced significantly more protein, fat, and total solids than did control cows throughout the study. With regard to udder health, 6x cows had lower somatic cell counts at the first test day relative to 3x cows and had reduced somatic cell scores for the first 3 mo of lactation, which suggests that early lactation milking frequency influences the mammary gland capacity to resist infection in addition to improving milk production efficiency.

SUMMARYWhat is known and objective: Although non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have been studied in randomized, controlled trials and meta-analyses in an effort to determine their cardiovascular (CV) risks, no consensus has been reached. These studies continue to raise questions, including whether cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) selectivity plays a role in conferring CV risk. We performed a meta-analysis of current literature to determine whether COX-2 selectivity leads to an increased CV risk. Methods: We utilized randomized, controlled trials and prospective cohort studies. We selected eight NSAIDs based on popularity and COX selectivity and conducted a search of the MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane databases. Primary endpoints included any myocardial infarction (MI), any stroke, CV death, and a combination of all three (composite CV outcomes). Twenty-six studies were found that met inclusion and exclusion criteria. Comparisons were made between all included drugs, against placebo, and against non-selective NSAIDs (nsNSAIDs). Drugs were also compared against COX-2 selective inhibitors (COXIBs) with and without inclusion of rofecoxib.

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A major unresolved issue in the cloning of mammals by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is the mechanism by which the process fails after embryos are transferred to the uterus of recipients before or during the implantation window. We investigated this problem by using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to compare the transcriptomes in cattle conceptuses produced by SCNT and artificial insemination (AI) at day (d) 18 (preimplantation) and d 34 (postimplantation) of gestation. In addition, endometrium was profiled to identify the communication pathways that might be affected by the presence of a cloned conceptus, ultimately leading to mortality before or during the implantation window. At d 18, the effects on the transcriptome associated with SCNT were massive, involving more than 5,000 differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Among them are 121 genes that have embryonic lethal phenotypes in mice, cause defects in trophoblast and placental development, and/or affect conceptus survival in mice. In endometria at d 18, <0.4% of expressed genes were affected by the presence of a cloned conceptus, whereas at d 34, ∼36% and <0.7% of genes were differentially expressed in intercaruncular and caruncular tissues, respectively. Functional analysis of DEGs in placental and endometrial tissues suggests a major disruption of signaling between the cloned conceptus and the endometrium, particularly the intercaruncular tissue. Our results support a "bottleneck" model for cloned conceptus survival during the periimplantation period determined by gene expression levels in extraembryonic tissues and the endometrial response to altered signaling from clones. somatic cell nuclear transfer | conceptus | placentation | conceptus-maternal communication I n cattle, as in other mammals, exquisitely orchestrated physiological changes of the conceptus and uterus are necessary for a successful pregnancy. Synchronization of the complex events at the time of implantation relies on the timed release of molecular signals from the conceptus and the endometrium. Embryo-derived IFN-τ (IFNT) is the major signal of pregnancy in cattle, preventing luteolysis and regulating the expression of genes that are responsible for promoting local changes in the endometrium to accommodate the conceptus (1-3). In females, progesterone is the major driver of endometrial changes that prepare the uterus for conceptus implantation (4, 5). In addition to IFNT and progesterone, signaling between the bovine conceptus and the endometrium is bidirectional, and involves several pathways that work concomitantly (6) for the successful establishment of pregnancy.Independent studies have shown that the majority of embryonic losses in cattle occur during the period that spans embryo cleavage until the attachment of the blastocyst to the endometrium (7). The reasons for these losses remain unclear and likely result from several factors, including embryonic lethal genes (8, 9), environmental stressors (7), and endometrial condition (10). Cloning of cattle by somatic cell nuclear transfer ...

Abstract. Many epidemiological studies of Salmonella rely on conventional bacteriological culture methods to detect Salmonella in fecal samples. These culture-based methods are inefficient for epidemiological studies in populations with a low prevalence of Salmonella. The objective of this study was to optimize a protocol that uses pooled Salmonella enrichment broth cultures of bovine feces and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the detection of the invA gene of Salmonella in feces. In one field trial, 196 animals were sampled, and all samples were tested by culture, invA PCR on individual samples, invA PCR on pools of 5 samples, and BAX PCR on individual samples. All assays showed a high agreement on individual samples (kappa $ 0.75). The invA PCR was run on each of 40 pools and detected 19 of 22 culture-positive pools. In another field trial, 152 samples were taken from 4 dairies, and the invA PCR was performed on pools of 5 samples in addition to bacteriological culture of individual samples. Salmonella was detected in 5 of the 32 pools (7 total positive samples) by both PCR and culture. One pool was PCR-positive but culture-negative. Pooling did not dramatically affect the performance of the invA PCR; most of the culture-positive samples were detected, including all of the samples when there were 4 or more Salmonella colonies on the agar plate. Based on these field trials, invA PCR on pooled samples appears to be an efficient method of Salmonella detection as long as Salmonella loads are not extremely low.

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