[1] Seasonal alkenone concentrations, production rates, and unsaturation patterns (U 37 K 0 ) were measured at station ALOHA in the oligotrophic subtropical North Pacific. Highest alkenone concentration and production rates were found in (winter and fall) or just below (summer) the surface mixed layer. Lowest alkenone concentration and production rates were found within the deep chlorophyll maximum layer (DCML). In the DCML, which occurs at 80-120 m throughout the year, U 37 K 0 temperatures overestimated water temperatures by $2°-4°C. This result probably reflected the effect of light limitation on the physiology of alkenone-producing algae. At the depth of maximum alkenone production, U 37 K 0 temperatures underestimated water temperature by $2°-4°C in summer and fall but overestimated in situ temperatures by $1°-2°C in winter. The underestimate of measured water temperature in summer and fall most likely reflected a physiological response to limited nutrient availability. The U 37 K 0 temperature overestimate in winter was best explained by a change in the ecology of alkenone-producing algae.
Laboratory culture experiments were performed to establish the range of growth conditions where 13 C labeling of di-and tri-unsaturated C 37 methyl ketones yields reliable growth rates for alkenone-producing algae. Results document that even at low growth rates and short time intervals,
International, national, and subnational laws and policies call for rapidly decarbonizing energy systems around the globe. This effort relies heavily on renewable electricity and calls for a transition that is: (i) flexible enough to accommodate existing and new electricity end uses and users; (ii) resilient in response to climate change and other threats to electricity infrastructure; (iii) cost-effective in comparison to alternatives; and (iv) just in the face of energy systems that are often the result of—or the cause of—procedural, distributive, and historical injustices. Acknowledging the intertwined roles of technology and policy, this work provides a cross-disciplinary review of how microgrids may contribute to renewable electricity systems that are flexible, resilient, cost-effective, and just (including illustrative examples from Korea, California, New York, the European Union, and elsewhere). Following this review of generalized microgrid characteristics, we more closely examine the role and potential of microgrids in two United States jurisdictions that have adopted 100% renewable electricity standards (Hawai‘i and Puerto Rico), and which are actively developing regulatory regimes putatively designed to enable renewable microgrids. Collectively, this review shows that although microgrids have the potential to support the transition to 100% renewable electricity in a variety of ways, the emerging policy structures require substantial further development to operationalize that potential. We conclude that unresolved fundamental policy tensions arise from justice considerations, such as how to distribute the benefits and burdens of microgrid infrastructure, rather than from technical questions about microgrid topologies and operating characteristics. Nonetheless, technical and quantitative future research will be necessary to assist regulators as they develop microgrid policies. In particular, there is a need to develop socio–techno–economic analyses of cost-effectiveness, which consider a broad range of potential benefits and costs.
While distributive justice and procedural justice have received substantial attention from energy scholars, recent work identifies restorative justice as an underdeveloped component of the energy justice framework. As conceived in the context of criminal law, restorative justice seeks to more precisely account for harms and obligations that arise from wrongdoing, and to widen the circle of participation in repairing those harms. Restorative environmental justice wields these principles to advance the environmental justice framework beyond a tight focus on disparate environmental and health impacts. Restorative energy justice faces the challenge of deploying this restorative approach in an energy landscape that is often tightly focused on technology choices and business concerns.In Hawai'i, we find an opportunity to operationalize the concept of restorative energy justice. The origin of Hawai'i's regulated electricity industry is indelibly intertwined with the illegal overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom. By incorporating a restorative approach that more fully considers the implications of those roots, energy regulators can better account for the future costs and benefits associated with Hawai'i's effort to decarbonize its electricity system. In turn, this improved accounting can reduce the risk that the urgency of decarbonization will be placed in a false tension with the imperative of justice.
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