Classical non-homologous DNA end-joining (C-NHEJ) is a major mammalian DNA double strand break (DSB) repair pathway. Deficiencies for C-NHEJ factors, such as XRCC4, abrogate lymphocyte development, owing to a strict requirement for C-NHEJ to join V(D)J recombination DSB intermediates1,2. The XRCC4-like factor (XLF) is mutated in certain immunodeficient human patients and has been implicated in C-NHEJ3,4,5,6. Yet, XLF-deficient mice have relatively normal lymphocyte development and their lymphocytes support normal V(D)J recombination5. The Ataxia Telangiectasia-Mutated protein (“ATM”) detects DSBs and activates DSB responses by phosphorylating substrates including histone H2AX7. However, ATM-deficiency causes only modest V(D)J recombination and lymphocyte developmental defects, and H2AX-deficiency does not measurably impact these processes7,8,9. Here, we show that XLF, ATM, and H2AX all have fundamental roles in processing and joining ends during V(D)J recombination; but that these roles have been masked by unanticipated functional redundancies. Thus, combined ATM/XLF-deficiency nearly blocks mouse lymphocyte development due inability to process and join chromosomal V(D)J recombination DSB intermediates. Combined XLF and ATM deficiency also severely impairs C-NHEJ, but not alternative end-joining, during IgH class switch recombination. Redundant ATM and XLF functions in C-NHEJ are mediated via ATM kinase activity and are not required for extra-chromosomal V(D)J recombination, suggesting a role for chromatin-associated ATM substrates. Correspondingly, conditional H2AX inactivation in XLF-deficient pro-B lines leads to V(D)J recombination defects associated with marked degradation of unjoined V(D)J ends, revealing that H2AX indeed has a role in this process.

SUMMARY Non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) is a major DNA double strand break repair pathway that is conserved in eukaryotes. In vertebrates, NHEJ further acquires end-processing capacities (e.g., hairpin opening) in addition to direct end-ligation. The catalytic subunit of DNA-PK (DNA-PKcs) is a vertebrate specific NHEJ factor that can be auto-phosphorylated or trans-phosphorylated by ATM kinase. Using a mouse model expressing a kinase-dead (KD) DNA-PKcs protein, we show that ATM-mediated trans-phosphorylation of DNA-PKcs regulates end-processing at the level of Artemis recruitment, while strictly auto-phosphorylation of DNA-PKcs is necessary to relieve the physical blockage on end-ligation imposed by the DNA-PKcs protein itself. Accordingly, DNA-PKcsKD/KD mice and cells show severe end-ligation defects and p53- and Ku-dependent embryonic lethality, but open hairpin-sealed ends normally in the presence of ATM kinase activity. Together, our findings identify DNA-PKcs as the molecular switch that coordinates end-processing and end-ligation at the DNA ends through differential phosphorylations.

Nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ), a major pathway of DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair, is required during lymphocyte development to resolve the programmed DSBs generated during Variable, Diverse, and Joining [V(D)J] recombination. XRCC4-like factor (XLF) (also called Cernunnos or NHEJ1) is a unique component of the NHEJ pathway. Although germ-line mutations of other NHEJ factors abrogate lymphocyte development and lead to severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), XLF mutations cause a progressive lymphocytopenia that is generally less severe than SCID. Accordingly, XLF-deficient murine lymphocytes show no measurable defects in V(D)J recombination. We reported earlier that ATM kinase and its substrate histone H2AX are both essential for V(D)J recombination in XLF-deficient lymphocytes, despite moderate role in V(D)J recombination in WT cells. p53-binding protein 1 (53BP1) is another substrate of ATM. 53BP1 deficiency led to small reduction of peripheral lymphocyte number by compromising both synapse and end-joining at modest level during V(D)J recombination. Here, we report that 53BP1/XLF double deficiency blocks lymphocyte development at early progenitor stages, owing to severe defects in end joining during chromosomal V(D)J recombination. The unrepaired DNA ends are rapidly degraded in 53BP1 −/− XLF −/− cells, as reported for H2AX −/− XLF −/− cells, revealing an end protection role for 53BP1 reminiscent of H2AX. In contrast to the early embryonic lethality of H2AX −/− XLF −/− mice, 53BP1 −/− XLF −/− mice are born alive and develop thymic lymphomas with translocations involving the T-cell receptor loci. Together, our findings identify a unique function for 53BP1 in end-joining and tumor suppression.Ataxia-Telangiectasia-Mutated | XRCC4-like factor | classical nonhomologous end joining L ymphocyte development requires the ordered assembly of variable region of antigen receptor genes from individual Variable, Diverse, and Joining gene segments through V(D)J recombination (1). V(D)J recombination is initiated by the RAG endonuclease (RAG), which introduces DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) between the conserved recombination signal sequence (RSS) and the participating germ-line V, D, or J gene segments (1). RAG cleavage generates two types of DNA ends, the 5′-phosphorylated blunt signal ends (SEs) and the hairpin sealed coding ends (CEs) (1). In the next step, ubiquitously expressed classical nonhomologous end-joining (C-NHEJ) factors directly join the two SEs to form a signal join (SJ), and process (via hairpin opening, de novo synthesis, and loss of nucleotides) and join the two CEs to form a coding join (CJ) (1).There are seven C-NHEJ factors in mammalian cells. Ku70 and Ku80 (or KU86 in human) form heterodimers (KU) that bind DSB ends and, among other functions, recruit and activate other NHEJ factors (2). DNA-bound KU interacts with the DNA-PK catalytic subunit (DNA-PKcs), and together they activate the endonuclease function of Artemis for end processing, including opening hairpin-sealed CEs during V(D)J reco...