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Quantification of cardiac chamber size, ventricular mass and function ranks among the most clinically important and most frequently requested tasks of echocardiography. Over the last decades, echocardiographic methods and techniques have improved and expanded dramatically, due to the introduction of higher frequency transducers, harmonic imaging, fully digital machines, left-sided contrast agents, and other technological advancements. Furthermore, echocardiography due to its portability and versatility is now used in emergency rooms, operating rooms, and intensive care units. Standardization of measurements in echocardiography has been inconsistent and less successful, compared to other imaging techniques and consequently, echocardiographic measurements are sometimes perceived as less reliable. Therefore, the American Society of Echocardiography, working together with the European Association of Echocardiography, a branch of the European Society of Cardiology, has critically reviewed the literature and updated the recommendations for quantifying cardiac chambers using echocardiography. This document reviews the technical aspects on how to perform quantitative chamber measurements of morphology and function, which is a component of every complete echocardiographic examination.

In the absence of any family history, the presence of these two manifestations is sufficient for the unequivocal diagnosis of MFS. In absence of either of these two, the presence of a bonafide FBN1 mutation or a combination of systemic manifestations is required. For the latter a new scoring system has been designed. In this revised nosology, FBN1 testing, although not mandatory, has greater weight in the diagnostic assessment. Special considerations are given to the diagnosis of MFS in children and alternative diagnoses in adults. We anticipate that these new guidelines may delay a definitive diagnosis of MFS but will decrease the risk of premature or misdiagnosis and facilitate worldwide discussion of risk and follow-up/management guidelines.

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Normalizations of left ventricular mass for height or body surface area introduce artifactual relations of indexed ventricular mass to body size and errors in estimating the impact of overweight. These problems are avoided and variability among normal subjects is reduced by using left ventricular mass/height2.7. Simple nomograms of the normal relation between height and left ventricular mass allow detection of ventricular hypertrophy in children and adults.

The spectrum of left ventricular geometric adaptation to hypertension was investigated in 165 patients with untreated essential hypertension and 125 age- and gender-matched normal adults studied by two-dimensional and M-mode echocardiography. Among hypertensive patients, left ventricular mass index and relative wall thickness were normal in 52%, whereas 13% had increased relative wall thickness with normal ventricular mass ("concentric remodeling"), 27% had increased mass with normal relative wall thickness (eccentric hypertrophy) and only 8% had "typical" hypertensive concentric hypertrophy (increase in both variables). Systemic hemodynamics paralleled ventricular geometry, with the highest peripheral resistance in the groups with concentric remodeling and hypertrophy, whereas cardiac index was super-normal in those with eccentric hypertrophy and low normal in patients with concentric remodeling. The left ventricular short-axis/long-axis ratio was positively related to stroke volume (r = 0.45, p less than 0.001), with cavity shape most elliptic in patients with concentric remodeling and most spheric in those with eccentric hypertrophy. Normality of left ventricular mass in concentric remodeling appeared to reflect offsetting by volume "underload" of the effects of pressure overload, whereas eccentric hypertrophy was associated with concomitant pressure and volume overload. Thus, arterial hypertension is associated with a spectrum of cardiac geometric adaptation matched to systemic hemodynamics and ventricular load. Concentric left ventricular remodeling and eccentric hypertrophy are more common than the typical pattern of concentric hypertrophy in untreated hypertensive patients.