Despite broad interest and a vast literature, understanding of innovative behaviour in organizations remains relatively undeveloped. T o contribute to the development of a more cumulative knowledge base, the author presents a conceptual review of the innovation literature by summarizing and organizing prior research into three related, though often confounded, research streams and identifies major reasons for the inconsistent and inconclusive nature of the research. Strategies for conducting more generalizable innovation research are suggested.

Hydraulic fracturing is the industry standard for extracting hydrocarbons from shale formations. Attention has been paid to the economic benefits and environmental impacts of this process, yet the biogeochemical changes induced in the deep subsurface are poorly understood. Recent single-gene investigations revealed that halotolerant microbial communities were enriched after hydraulic fracturing. Here, the reconstruction of 31 unique genomes coupled to metabolite data from the Marcellus and Utica shales revealed that many of the persisting organisms play roles in methylamine cycling, ultimately supporting methanogenesis in the deep biosphere. Fermentation of injected chemical additives also sustains long-term microbial persistence, while thiosulfate reduction could produce sulfide, contributing to reservoir souring and infrastructure corrosion. Extensive links between viruses and microbial hosts demonstrate active viral predation, which may contribute to the release of labile cellular constituents into the extracellular environment. Our analyses show that hydraulic fracturing provides the organismal and chemical inputs for colonization and persistence in the deep terrestrial subsurface. S hale gas accounts for one-third of natural gas energy resources worldwide. It has been estimated that shale gas will provide half of the natural gas in the USA, annually, by 2040, with the Marcellus shale in the Appalachian Basin projected to produce three times more than any other formation 1 . Recovery of these hydrocarbons is dependent on hydraulic fracturing technologies, where the high-pressure injection of water and chemical additives generates extensive fractures in the shale matrix. Hydrocarbons trapped in tiny pore spaces are subsequently released and collected at the wellpad surface, together with a portion of the injected fluids that have reacted with the shale formation. The mixture of injected fluids and hydrocarbons collected is referred to as 'produced fluids'.Microbial metabolism and growth in hydrocarbon reservoirs has both positive and negative impacts on energy recovery. Whereas stimulation of methanogens in coal beds enhances energy recovery 2 , bacterial hydrogen sulfide production ('reservoir souring') decreases profits and contributes to corrosion and the risk of environmental contamination 3 . Additionally, biomass accumulation within newly generated fractures may reduce their permeability, decreasing natural gas recovery. Despite these potential microbial impacts, little is known about the function and activity of microorganisms in hydraulically fractured shale.Initial work by our group and others 4-9 used single marker gene analyses to identify microorganisms from several geographically distinct shale formations. These analyses showed similar halotolerant taxa in produced fluids several months after hydraulic fracturing. To assign functional roles to these organisms, we conducted metagenomic and metabolite analyses on input and produced fluids up to a year after hydraulic fracturing (HF) from two Appala...

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has become an area of increasing importance for many companies. Professional sport teams, also, are increasingly engaging in socially responsible activities (Irwin, Lachowetz, Cornwell, & Clark, 2003;Kern, 2000;Robinson, 2005). The research described in this article identifies, and determines the relative importance of, the drivers-both internal and external-of socially responsible activities by professional sport teams. Using a qualitative approach, interviews were conducted with sport executives, and organizational documents were analyzed. The data showed that external drivers of CSR, in particular key constituents, the interconnectedness of the field, and pressures from the league were more important determinants of CSR initiatives than the internal resources available to deliver CSR efforts (i.e., attention, media access, celebrity players, coaches, facilities). Based on these preliminary findings, we propose a framework of CSR adoption in professional sport that predicts the types of CSR initiatives a sport organization is likely to adopt depending on its internal and/or external orientation and present a research agenda based on the framework.Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has received considerable attention in the academic literature as the role that CSR plays in business has grown. The focus of academic research has been on identifying the link between financial and social performance (Margolis & Walsh, 2003). While the evidence of this relationship remains unclear, it does point to a positive association. Rather than continuing to focus on the financial-social performance relationship, Margolis and Walsh (2003) argued that researchers should shift their lenses and focus on the context, processes, and outcomes of CSR. This article follows this call by exploring contextual forces, internal and external to the firm, that lead organizations to become more socially responsible. Using an inductive research approach, we found Oliver's (1991) The purpose of this article is to explore and prioritize the forces that result in professional sport organizations engaging in CSR activities. By doing so, we hope to contribute to our understanding of the diffusion of this phenomenon such that it will be well grounded for future research. In addition, we explore the relationship among the determinants of CSR in sport and how they are related to the type of CSR initiatives that are adopted. The article is organized as follows, we: (1) present a brief overview of relevant aspects of the CSR literature; (2) highlight some socially responsible initiatives undertaken by professional sport organizations; (3) address what is unique about the sport industry, as it relates to CSR; (4) present preliminary research concerning the substantial diffusion of CSR in professional sport; (5) propose a determinants of CSR adoption in professional sport framework; and (6) present a research agenda that builds on the proposed framework. Next, we provide an overview of relevant elements of the CSR...

The purpose of stakeholder management is to facilitate our understanding of increasingly unpredictable external environments, thereby facilitating our ability to manage within these environments. We argue that a powerful implicit assumption within the stakeholder literature—that priorities within role-based stakeholder groups are relatively homogeneous—blurs our understanding of organization-stakeholder relationships. Two important and related areas of concern are presented. The first involves the primacy of role in stakeholder definition. This role primacy approach to stakeholder definition is appropriate if, for a particular issue, role-based stakeholder group members have similar priorities. Individual and collective self-interest provides a rationale for this assumption. However, an important problem with this approach arises in situations in which self-interest is not the primary motivator of individuals' priorities. In these instances, subgroups within different role-based stakeholder groups might have more similar priorities than either subgroup has with others within their role-based stakeholder group. In these situations the role primacy approach impedes, rather than facilitates, an understanding of our environment. Our second concern is related to insufficient rigor in the application of stakeholder analysis. Most stakeholder studies, both theoretical and empirical, fall short in the determination of relevant interests and the subsequent subdivision of role-based stakeholder groups into rigorously defined specific stakeholder groups. Having suggested that the role primacy approach to stakeholder definition is less than ideal, we examine the extent to which, and the conditions under which, roles are likely to determine priorities, and thus, the likelihood of relatively homogeneous priorities within role-based stakeholder groups. In addition, we present an illustrative empirical analysis of stakeholder group priorities. The illustrative study is conducted within the context of intercollegiate athletics. Related literature and our empirical results indicate that role-based self-interest frequently is not a sufficient "binding tie" of stakeholder groups. Given this background, we present an alternative approach to stakeholder analysis that borrows heavily from the customer segmentation literature of marketing. Our alternative approach can accommodate heterogeneous priorities within role-based stakeholder groups.