BUD23 was identified from a bioinformatics analysis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae genes involved in ribosome biogenesis. Deletion of BUD23 leads to severely impaired growth, reduced levels of the small (40S) ribosomal subunit, and a block in processing 20S rRNA to 18S rRNA, a late step in 40S maturation. Bud23 belongs to the S-adenosylmethionine-dependent Rossmann-fold methyltransferase superfamily and is related to smallmolecule methyltransferases. Nevertheless, we considered that Bud23 methylates rRNA. Methylation of G1575 is the only mapped modification for which the methylase has not been assigned. Here, we show that this modification is lost in bud23 mutants. The nuclear accumulation of the small-subunit reporters Rps2-green fluorescent protein (GFP) and Rps3-GFP, as well as the rRNA processing intermediate, the 5 internal transcribed spacer 1, indicate that bud23 mutants are defective for small-subunit export. Mutations in Bud23 that inactivated its methyltransferase activity complemented a bud23⌬ mutant. In addition, mutant ribosomes in which G1575 was changed to adenosine supported growth comparable to that of cells with wild-type ribosomes. Thus, Bud23 protein, but not its methyltransferase activity, is important for biogenesis and export of the 40S subunit in yeast.Ribosome biogenesis is a complex and highly ordered process in eukaryotic cells. Most of the events of ribosome assembly take place in the nuclear subcompartment, the nucleolus, which is organized around the transcription of the rRNAs. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the primary 35S precursor rRNA is transcribed by RNA polymerase I. Subsequent processing by endonucleases and exonucleases generates 18S RNA, the mature RNA of the small subunit, and 25S and 5.8S RNAs, two of the three RNAs of the large subunit. 5S RNA, the third RNA component of the large subunit is transcribed separately by RNA polymerase III. The processing pathway is well documented in S. cerevisiae (59), and more than 170 trans-acting factors that partake in ribosome biogenesis have been identified (10,13,56). The initial cleavage events at the A0, A1, and A2 sites are dependent on the U3 snoRNA and separate 20S pre-rRNA, the precursor for 18S RNA, from 27S RNA, the precursor for 5.8S and 25S rRNAs. In addition to nucleolytic processing, the ribosomal RNAs are highly modified by methylation and pseudouridylation. 2Ј-O-Ribose methylation and pseudouridylation are directed by box C/D and box H/ACA snoRNAs, respectively, that guide the modification enzymes to their targets (22). In addition, a small number of base methylations are carried out by specific methyltransferases (MTases)

In eukaryotes, the highly conserved U3 small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) base-pairs to multiple sites in the pre-ribosomal RNA (pre-rRNA) to promote early cleavage and folding events. Binding of the U3 box A region to the pre-rRNA is mutually exclusive with folding of the central pseudoknot (CPK), a universally conserved rRNA structure of the small ribosomal subunit essential for protein synthesis. Here, we report that the DEAH-box helicase Dhr1 (Ecm16) is responsible for displacing U3. An active site mutant of Dhr1 blocked release of U3 from the pre-ribosome, thereby trapping a pre-40S particle. This particle had not yet achieved its mature structure because it contained U3, pre-rRNA, and a number of early-acting ribosome synthesis factors but noticeably lacked ribosomal proteins (r-proteins) that surround the CPK. Dhr1 was cross-linked in vivo to the pre-rRNA and to U3 sequences flanking regions that base-pair to the pre-rRNA including those that form the CPK. Point mutations in the box A region of U3 suppressed a cold-sensitive mutation of Dhr1, strongly indicating that U3 is an in vivo substrate of Dhr1. To support the conclusions derived from in vivo analysis we showed that Dhr1 unwinds U3-18S duplexes in vitro by using a mechanism reminiscent of DEAD box proteins.

Ribosome biogenesis is a multi-step process that couples cell growth with cell proliferation. Although several large-scale analysis of pre-ribosomal particles have identified numerous trans-acting factors involved in this process, many proteins involved in pre-rRNA processing and ribosomal subunit maturation have yet to be identified. Las1 was originally identified in Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a protein involved in cell morphogenesis. We previously demonstrated that the human homolog, Las1L, is required for efficient ITS2 rRNA processing and synthesis of the 60S ribosomal subunit. Here, we report that the functions of Las1 in ribosome biogenesis are also conserved in S. cerevisiae. Depletion of Las1 led to the accumulation of both the 27S and 7S rRNA intermediates and impaired the synthesis of the 60S subunit. We show that Las1 co-precipitates mainly with the 27S rRNA and associates with an Nsa1 and Rix1-containing pre-60S particle. We further identify Grc3 as a major Las1-interacting protein. We demonstrate that the kinase activity of Grc3 is required for efficient pre-rRNA processing and that depletion of Grc3 leads to rRNA processing defects similar to the ones observed in Las1-depleted cells. We propose that Las1 and Grc3 function together in a conserved mechanism to modulate rRNA processing and eukaryotic ribosome biogenesis.

Bud23 is responsible for the conserved methylation of G1575 of 18S rRNA, in the P-site of the small subunit of the ribosome. bud23Δ mutants have severely reduced small subunit levels and show a general failure in cleavage at site A2 during rRNA processing. Site A2 is the primary cleavage site for separating the precursors of 18S and 25S rRNAs. Here, we have taken a genetic approach to identify the functional environment of BUD23. We found mutations in UTP2 and UTP14, encoding components of the SSU processome, as spontaneous suppressors of a bud23Δ mutant. The suppressors improved growth and subunit balance and restored cleavage at site A2. In a directed screen of 50 ribosomal trans-acting factors, we identified strong positive and negative genetic interactions with components of the SSU processome and strong negative interactions with components of RNase MRP. RNase MRP is responsible for cleavage at site A3 in pre-rRNA, an alternative cleavage site for separating the precursor rRNAs. The strong negative genetic interaction between RNase MRP mutants and bud23Δ is likely due to the combined defects in cleavage at A2 and A3. Our results suggest that Bud23 plays a role at the time of A2 cleavage, earlier than previously thought. The genetic interaction with the SSU processome suggests that Bud23 could be involved in triggering disassembly of the SSU processome, or of particular subcomplexes of the processome.

This study shows that Trm112 interacts with and is required for the presence of 18S rRNA methyltransferase Bud23. Also shown is the involvement of Trm112 in 60S biogenesis, thus extending the known functions of Trm112 from tRNA and translation factor methylation to roles in biogenesis of both ribosomal subunits.

The small ribosomal subunit assembles cotranscriptionally on the nascent primary transcript. Cleavage at site A2 liberates the pre-40S subunit. We previously identified Bud23 as a conserved eukaryotic methyltransferase that is required for efficient cleavage at A2. Here, we report that Bud23 physically and functionally interacts with the DEAH-box RNA helicase Ecm16 (also known as Dhr1). Ecm16 is also required for cleavage at A2. We identified mutations in ECM16 that suppressed the growth and A2 cleavage defects of a bud23⌬ mutant. RNA helicases often require protein cofactors to provide substrate specificity. We used yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) two-hybrid analysis to map the binding site of Bud23 on Ecm16. Despite the physical and functional interaction between these factors, mutations that disrupted the interaction, as assayed by two-hybrid analysis, did not display a growth defect. We previously identified mutations in UTP2 and UTP14 that suppressed bud23⌬. We suggest that a network of protein interactions may mask the loss of interaction that we have defined by two-hybrid analysis. A mutation in motif I of Ecm16 that is predicted to impair its ability to hydrolyze ATP led to accumulation of Bud23 in an ϳ45S particle containing Ecm16. Thus, Bud23 enters the pre-40S pathway at the time of Ecm16 function.

Maintenance of organelle identity is profoundly dependent on the coordination between correct targeting of proteins and removal of mistargeted and damaged proteins. This task is mediated by organelle-specific protein quality control (QC) systems. In yeast, the endocytosis and QC of most plasma membrane (PM) proteins requires the Rsp5 ubiquitin ligase and ART adaptor network. We show that intracellular adaptors of Rsp5, Ear1, and Ssh4 mediate recognition and vacuolar degradation of PM proteins that escape or bypass PM QC systems. This second tier of surveillance helps to maintain cell integrity upon heat stress and protects from proteotoxicity. To understand the mechanism of the recognition of aberrant PM cargos by Ssh4–Rsp5, we mistarget multiple PM proteins de novo to the vacuolar membrane. We found that Ssh4–Rsp5 can target and ubiquitinate multiple lysines within a restricted distance from the membrane, providing a fail-safe mechanism for a diverse cargo repertoire. The mistargeting or misfolding of PM proteins likely exposes these lysines or shifts them into the “ubiquitination zone” accessible to the Ssh4–Rsp5 complex.

Protein quality control (PQC) machineries play a critical role in selective identification and removal of mistargeted, misfolded, and aberrant proteins. This task is extremely complicated due to the enormous diversity of the proteome. It also requires nuanced and careful differentiation between 'normal' and 'folding intermediates' from 'abnormal' and 'misfolded' protein states. Multiple genetic and proteomic approaches have started to delineate the molecular underpinnings of how these machineries recognize their target and how their activity is regulated. In this review, we summarize our understanding of the various E3 ubiquitin ligases and associated machinery that mediate PQC in the endo-lysosome system in yeast and humans, how they are regulated, and mechanisms of target selection, with the intent of guiding future research in this area. Membrane Protein Quality Control (PQC)A hallmark of eukaryotic cells is the evolution of subcellular compartments that allow distinct regions of the cells to perform specialized functions. This specialization is mediated by a diverse array of organelle-specific proteins that are continually prone to damage induced by various stresses. To effectively and expeditiously remove damaged or unwanted proteins, cells have also evolved elaborate PQC networks dedicated to the surveillance of distinct subcellular compartments [1]. The complexity of this task is highlighted by the remarkable heterogeneity of their target repertoire. Proteins vary greatly based on size, structure, folding rate, timing of function, as well as aqueous or membrane solubility, and each of these factors contribute to their susceptibility to degradation [2]. Integral membrane proteins, being embedded in the membrane, are largely inaccessible or hidden from the PQC machinery in the cytoplasm, making them especially challenging targets. Moreover, their conformational state is extremely sensitive to fluctuations in the bilayer composition and fluidity [3]. This distinction from water-soluble proteins requires a specialized ensemble of PQC mechanisms dedicated to monitoring membrane proteins. While we appreciate that tight regulation of membrane proteins is key to proper maintenance of signal transduction, nutrient homeostasis, membrane permeability, and cellular integrity, we are just at the beginnings of understanding the molecular features that facilitate this nuanced surveillance.Advances in high-throughout genetic and proteomic analyses are allowing us to expand the known repertoire of cellular PQC machineries and their targets [4,5]. Organelle-specific chaperones, E3 ubiquitin (Ub) ligases, and trafficking receptors, employ diverse strategies to recognize and deliver damaged proteins for degradation. Cellular PQC mechanisms are also highly interconnected, cooperative, and often hierarchical. For instance, plasma membrane (PM) proteins are monitored during biogenesis and trafficking through the secretory system, at their functional destination, as well as postendocytosis. Multiple PQC mechanisms in the secretor...