Transfer of sufficient immunoglobulin G (IgG) to the neonatal calf via colostrum is vital to provide the calf with immunological protection and resistance against disease. The objective of the present study was to determine the factors associated with both colostral IgG concentration and colostral weight in Irish dairy cows. Fresh colostrum samples were collected from 704 dairy cows of varying breed and parity from four Irish research farms between January and December 2011; colostral weight was recorded and the IgG concentration was determined using an ELISA method. The mean IgG concentration in the colostrum was 112 g/l (s.d. 5 51 g/l) and ranged from 13 to 256 g/l. In total, 96% of the samples in this study contained .50 g/l IgG, which is considered to be indicative of high-quality colostrum. Mean colostral weight was 6.7 kg (s.d. 5 3.6 kg) with a range of 0.1 to 24 kg. Factors associated with both colostral IgG concentration and colostral weight were determined using a fixed effects multiple regression model. Parity, time interval from calving to next milking, month of calving, colostral weight and herd were all independently associated with IgG concentration. IgG concentration decreased ( P , 0.01) by 1.7 (s.e. 5 0.6) g/l per kg increase in the colostral weight. Older parity cows, cows that had a shorter time interval from calving to milking, and cows that calved earlier in spring or in the autumn produced colostrum with higher IgG concentration. Parity ( P , 0.001), time interval from calving to milking ( P , 0.01), weight of the calf at birth ( P , 0.05), colostral IgG concentration ( P , 0.01) and herd were all independently associated with colostral weight at the first milking. Younger parity cows, cows milked earlier post-calving, and cows with lighter calves produced less colostrum. In general, colostrum quality of cows in this study was higher than in many previous studies; possible reasons include use of a relatively low-yielding cow type that produces low weight of colostrum, short calving to colostrum collection interval and grass-based nutritional management. The results of this study indicate that colostral IgG concentration can be maximised by reducing the time interval between calving and collection of colostrum.

34Irish dairy farmers are expanding in preparation for a new era of unrestricted milk 35 production with the elimination of EU milk quotas in 2015. Countries experiencing a changing 36 agricultural demographic, including farm expansion, can benefit from documenting the 37 implementation of on-farm biosecurity. The objectives of this study were to document and 38 describe influences on biosecurity practices and related opinions on commercial Irish dairy farms. 39A telesurvey was carried out, a response rate of 64% was achieved, and participants were 40 shown to represent the national population. A 20% discrepancy was recorded between self-41 declared closed herds and those actually closed based on official records, indicating a lack of 42 understanding of the closed herd concept. Over 72% of farmers surveyed considered biosecurity 43 important, but 53% stated that a lack of information might prevent them from improving 44 biosecurity. Logistic regression highlighted regional, age, and farm-size related differences in 45 biosecurity practices and opinions. Regional differences existed with regard to implementation 46 of certain biosecurity practices with the most dairy cattle dense region three times more likely 47 than the least dense region to always quarantine purchased stock (P=0.012) . Younger farmers, 48 in general, were over twice as likely than middle-aged farmers to have intent to implement 49 biosecurity guidelines (P=0.026). Large Irish dairy farmers were almost five times more likely to 50 join a voluntary health scheme (P=0.003), and were over three times more likely to pay a 51 premium price for such cattle (P=0.02) than the smallest farmers. The baseline data recorded in 52 this study can form the basis for more detailed sociological and demographic research which can 53 further characterise biosecurity training opportunities within this farming community. 54 55

Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) and bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) are contagious bovine viral agents. The objectives of this study were to use quarterly bulk milk and 'spot' testing of unvaccinated youngstock to establish the national prevalence of exposure to BVDV and/or BoHV-1 in Irish dairy herds. Seasonality of bulk milk ELISA results was also examined. From a geographically representative population of 305 dairy herds, 88% and 80% of herds yielded mean annual positive bulk milk readings for BVDV and BoHV-1, respectively. Of these, 61% were vaccinated against BVDV and 12% against BoHV-1. A total of 2171 serum samples from weanlings having a mean age of 291 days yielded 543 (25%) seropositive for BVDV, and 117 (5.4%) seropositive for BoHV-1. A significant seasonal trend in bulk milk antibody ELISA readings and herd status was recorded for BVDV, with more herds categorised as positive in the latter half of the year.

An observational study was conducted on dairy calves (51 healthy, 31 with neonatal diarrhea) during outbreaks of diarrhea on 4 dairy farms. Clinical assessment scores (CAS) were assigned to each healthy and diarrheic calf [from 0 (healthy) to 4 (marked illness)]. Blood gas analysis [pH, base excess (BE), Na(+), K(+), Ca(2+), Cl(-), glucose, total hemoglobin, standard HCO3(-), strong ion difference (SID), and anion gap (AG)] was completed for each calf. Repeated measurements were taken in healthy animals, and pre- and postintervention measurements were taken for diarrheic calves. The mean CAS of diarrheic calves was 1.7, with 51, 30, 17, and 2% of calves scoring 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. The mean value for blood pH, BE, AG, and SID was 7.26, -4.93mM, 16.3mM, and 38.59mM, respectively. Calves were administered an oral rehydration and buffering solution (ORBS; Vitalife for Calves, Epsilion Ltd., Cork, Ireland) and reassessed. The mean CAS decreased to 0.38 (65% of calves scored 0 and 35% scored 1) at 6 to 18h posttreatment and to 0.03 (98% of calves scored 0 and 2% scored 1) within 24 to 48h. Significant increases in mean value for pH, BE, HCO3(-), Na(+), and SID, and significant decreases in AG, K(+), Ca(2+), and total hemoglobin were recorded posttreatment. The correlation estimates indicated that pH, HCO3(-), and BE were strongly correlated with CAS, with values exceeding 0.60 in all cases. Administration of an ORBS with a high SID and bicarbonate buffer demonstrated rapid recovery from a diarrheic episode in dairy calves.

Calf mortality and morbidity commonly occurs within the first month of life postpartum. Standard health ranges are invaluable aids in diagnostic veterinary medicine to confirm normal or the degree and nature of abnormal parameters in (sub)clinically ill animals. Extensive research has indicated significant differences between the physiologies of neonate and adult cattle, particularly for blood parameters such as pH, base excess, anion gap, and bicarbonate (HCO). The objective of this research was to determine the influence of age, sex, and breed type, in addition to environmental factors, on the normal blood gas profiles of neonatal calves, and thus develop a scientifically validated reference range accounting for any significant factors. The study was conducted on healthy neonatal calves (n = 288), and completed over a 2-yr period. Individual calf blood gas analysis was conducted for parameters of pH, base excess, Na, K, Ca, Cl, glucose, total hemoglobin, HCO, pCO, anion gap, strong ion difference, and hematocrit levels. Regression procedures examined the combined effect of year, farm, age, breed type, sex, and hours postfeeding on each variable. Significant effects were observed for age, sex, and breed type on several of the blood gas variables. Furthermore, year, farm, and hours postfeeding appeared to have less of an influence on neonatal bovine blood gas profiles. Consequently, specific ranges based on the neonate's age, sex, and breed type will allow for more detailed and accurate diagnosis of health and ill health in neonatal calves.

Biosecurity is a fundamental component of preventative medicine and an important 42 concept to promote within farming communities. Implementation of biosecurity at farm-level 43 tends to be poor, and lack of information has been cited by many studies as a potential cause.44 Private veterinary practitioners (PVPs) and dairy advisors (DAs) play a pivotal role in the 45 provision of animal health and farm management services to dairy farmers. The objective of 46 this study was to document and compare biosecurity-related practices and opinions across 47 Irish PVPs, DAs, and a selection of international veterinary experts (VEs). 48Questionnaire surveys were completed and acceptable response rates of 47% (PVP), 49 97% (DA), and 65% (VE) were achieved. Significant differences were identified in the 50 promotion and implementation of biosecurity between PVPs and DAs, with a higher 51 proportion of PVPs regularly advising clients on biosecurity (P<0.0001) and receiving requests for biosecurity advice from clients (P=0.004). Communication between DAs and53 PVPs was sub-optimal with over 60% of each group not in regular communication. With 54 regard to the main farmer motivator for biosecurity implementation, the majority of PVPs 55 (62%) prioritised external factors (economic benefit, mandatory obligation) as the main 56 farmer motivator for biosecurity implementation. The majority of DAs prioritised 57 health/animal related factors (69%) in closer agreement with farmers (83.1%), although still 58 significantly less likely (OR=1.8) than farmers to choose such motivators (P=0.005).59 Importance ranking of biosecurity measures by PVPs and VEs was also documented as a 60 basis for veterinary education and farm biosecurity risk assessments. 61DA and PVP communication is sub-optimal in Ireland and development of interactive 62 teams and training could provide a vehicle for improved promotion of biosecurity on farm.

BackgroundRumen flukes are trematode parasites found globally; in tropical and sub-tropical climates, infection can result in paramphistomosis, which can have a deleterious impact on livestock. In Europe, rumen fluke is not regarded as a clinically significant parasite, recently however, the prevalence of rumen fluke has sharply increased and several outbreaks of clinical paramphistomosis have been reported. Gaining a better understanding of rumen fluke transmission and identification of risk factors is crucial to improve the control of this parasitic disease. In this regard, a national prevalence study of rumen fluke infection and an investigation of associated risk factors were conducted in Irish sheep flocks between November 2014 and January 2015. In addition, a molecular identification of the rumen fluke species present in Ireland was carried out using an isolation method of individual eggs from faecal material coupled with a PCR. After the DNA extraction of 54 individual eggs, the nuclear fragment ITS-2 was amplified and sequenced using the same primers.ResultsAn apparent herd prevalence of 77.3 % was determined. Several risk factors were identified including type of pasture grazed, regional variation, and sharing of the paddocks with other livestock species. A novel relationship between the Suffolk breed and higher FEC was reported for the first time. The predominant rumen fluke species found was C. daubneyi. Nevertheless, P. leydeni was unexpectedly identified infecting sheep in Ireland for the first time.ConclusionsAn exceptionally high prevalence of rumen fluke among Irish sheep flocks has been highlighted in this study and a more thorough investigation is necessary to analyse its economic impact. The isolation of individual eggs coupled with the PCR technique used here has proven a reliable tool for discrimination of Paramphistomum spp. This technique may facilitate forthcoming studies of the effects of paramphistomosis on livestock production. The most noteworthy finding was the identification of P. leydeni affecting sheep in Ireland, however further studies are required to clarify its implications. Also, a significant relationship between Suffolk breed and a heavier infection was found, which can be used as a starting point for future research on control strategies of rumen fluke infection.

Q fever (Coxiella burnetii) is a zoonotic disease of increasing public health importance. The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of, and risk factors associated with, exposure to C. burnetii in cattle in the Republic of Ireland. Bulk-tank milk samples from 290 dairy herds and 1659 sera from 332 dairy and beef herds, randomly sampled, were tested by indirect ELISA to detect antibodies to C. burnetii. In total, 37·9% of bulk-milk sample herds and 1·8% of sera (from 6·9% of herds) were antibody positive. Of risk factors tested using logistic regression analysis, only large herd size (bulk-milk analysis) and dairy breed (serum analysis) significantly increased the odds of being positive for antibodies to C. burnetii. Herds with positive milk or serum samples were randomly distributed throughout the Republic of Ireland and no clustering was observed. The use of an ELISA to test bulk-milk samples collected by randomized stratified sampling is a cost-effective method by which national herd prevalence can be estimated by active surveillance.