The livestock sector contributes considerably to global greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). Here, for the year 2007 we examined GHG emissions in the EU27 livestock sector and estimated GHG emissions from production and consumption of livestock products; including imports, exports and wastage. We also reviewed available mitigation options and estimated their potential. The focus of this review is on the beef and dairy sector since these contribute 60% of all livestock production emissions. Particular attention is paid to the role of land use and land use change (LULUC) and carbon sequestration in grasslands. GHG emissions of all livestock products amount to between 630 and 863 Mt CO2 e, or 12-17% of total EU27 GHG emissions in 2007. The highest emissions aside from production, originate from LULUC, followed by emissions from wasted food. The total GHG mitigation potential from the livestock sector in Europe is between 101 and 377 Mt CO2 e equivalent to between 12 and 61% of total EU27 livestock sector emissions in 2007. A reduction in food waste and consumption of livestock products linked with reduced production, are the most effective mitigation options, and if encouraged, would also deliver environmental and human health benefits. Production of beef and dairy on grassland, as opposed to intensive grain fed production, can be associated with a reduction in GHG emissions depending on actual LULUC emissions. This could be promoted on rough grazing land where appropriate.

To link spatial patterns and ecological processes, we analysed the distribution of two shrub species (one large and dominant, the other smaller) and estimated the reproductive consequences of their distribution for the smaller species. We tested the significance of the spatial distribution pattern of the two shrubs by second-order bivariate point pattern analysis (Ripley's K function). Performance of Asparagus albus, the smaller shrub, was measured as (1) survival of transplanted seedlings in two contrasting habitats: patches of the dominant shrub (Ziziphus lotus), and open interspaces; and (2) reproductive output of plants naturally occurring in both habitats. The two species were significantly aggregated. Transplanted Asparagus albus seedlings had higher survival rates in patches than in the open. Plants produced more flowers, fruits, and showed a higher mass of seeds when living in aggregates than when isolated. The mechanisms responsible for this facilitative effect seem to be related to soil enrichment in patches. These results suggest that the spatial aggregation of species can be indicative of a positive interaction among them, directly affecting fitness of at least one of the species. Facilitation, by inducing variations in the reproductive performance may play a major role in the demography and dynamics of plant populations.

Spatial patterns in plant communities are thought to be controlled by the interplay of species interactions and environmental constraints. To evaluate the role of plant–plant interactions in shaping these communities we quantified species co‐occurrence and interaction in seven environmentally distinct communities. These included four different semiarid habitats in southeast Spain, one alpine system in the Sierra Nevada range (Spain), and two sites in Venezuela, a secondary savanna near Caracas (Altos de Pipe), and a sclerophyllous shrubland in the Gran Sabana plateau. We expected that facilitation would be stronger at sites with more spatial associations. The four semiarid sites in Spain and the shrubland in Gran Sabana showed a high degree of positive species associations. Of the other two communities, one showed both positive and negative associations while negative ones predominated in Altos de Pipe. The direct experimental measure of neighbors’ effect showed that positive interactions among species prevailed in communities where positive species associations dominated. The appearance of benefactor species in patches increased species richness compared with the surrounding inter‐shrub spaces. Our results provide a link between spatial patterns and species interactions, where aggregation points to positive interactions and segregation to competitive or interference effects. Facilitation appears as a relevant process shaping communities under environmental constraints.

The effects of invasive nonnative species on community composition are well documented. However, few studies have determined the mechanisms by which invaders drive these changes. The literature indicates that many nonnative plant species alter light availability differently than natives in a given community, suggesting that shading may be such a mechanism. We compared light quantity (photosynthetically active radiation, PAR) and quality (red: far-red ratio, R:Fr) in riparian reaches heavily invaded by a nonnative tree (Acer platanoides) to that in an uninvaded forest and experimentally tested the effects of our measured differences in PAR and R:Fr on the survival, growth, and biomass allocation of seedlings of the dominant native species and Acer platanoides. Light conditions representative of the understory of Acer platanoides-invaded forest decreased survival of the native maple Acer glabrum by 28%; Amelanchier alnifolia by 32%; Betula occidentalis by 55%; Elymus glaucus by 46%; and Sorbus aucuparia by 52%, relative to seedlings growing in PAR similar to that of native understories. In contrast, Acer platanoides and the native shrub Symphoricarpos albus were not affected by reductions in PAR. Acer platanoides seedlings and saplings are uniquely adapted to shade relative to native species. Acer platanoides was the only species tested that decreased allocation to roots relative to shoots in the invaded forest vs. the native forest light conditions. Therefore it was the only species to demonstrate an adaptive response to the particular light environment associated with Acer platanoides invasion as predicted by optimal partitioning theory. The profound change in light quantity associated with Acer platanoides canopies appears to act as an important driver of native suppression and conspecific success in invaded riparian communities. Further research is necessary to determine whether the effect of nonnative plant-driven changes on light quantity and quality is a widespread mechanism negatively affecting resident species and facilitating invasion by nonnatives.