SUMMARY Studies of Parkinson’s disease (PD) have been greatly hindered by lack of access to affected human dopaminergic (DA) neurons. Here, we report generation of induced pluripotent stem cells that carry the p.G2019S mutation (G2019S-iPSCs) in the Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase-2 (LRRK2) gene, the most common PD-related mutation. We demonstrate that these G2019S-iPSCs were able to differentiate into DA neurons and showed increased expression of key oxidative stress response genes and α-synuclein protein. Moreover, G2019S-mutant DA neurons were more sensitive to caspase-3 activation, caused by exposure to hydrogen peroxide, MG-132, and 6-hydroxydopamine, compared to unaffected DA neurons. These findings suggest that G2019S-iPSC-derived DA neurons exhibit early phenotypes linked to PD. Due to high penetrance of the LRRK2 mutation and its clinical resemblance to sporadic PD, these neurons may provide a valuable platform for identification of novel pharmacological agents and diagnostics for modeling and alleviation of a subset of disease phenotypes.

A significant risk in the clinical application of human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs), including human embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells (hESCs and hiPSCs), is teratoma formation from residual undifferentiated cells. We have raised a monoclonal antibody (mAb) against hESCs, designated SSEA-5, which binds a novel antigen highly and specifically expressed on hPSCs--the H type-1 glycan. Separation of SSEA-5 high cells through fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) drastically reduced teratoma formation potential. To ensure complete removal we identified additional markers exhibiting a large dynamic expression range during differentiation: CD9, CD30, CD50, CD90, and CD200. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) conducted on human fetal tissues and bioinformatics analysis of a microarray database revealed that concurrent expression of these markers is both common and specific to hPSCs. When applied to incompletely differentiated hESC cultures, immunodepletion with SSEA-5 and 2 additional markers completely removed teratoma formation potential.

Spermatocytic seminomas are solid tumors found solely in the testis of predominantly elderly individuals. We investigated these tumors using a genome-wide analysis for structural and numerical chromosomal changes through conventional karyotyping, spectral karyotyping, and array comparative genomic hybridization using a 32 K genomic tiling-path resolution BAC platform (confirmed by in situ hybridization). Our panel of five spermatocytic seminomas showed a specific pattern of chromosomal imbalances, mainly numerical in nature (range, 3-24 per tumor). Gain of chromosome 9 was the only consistent anomaly, which in one case also involved amplification of the 9p21.3-pter region. Parallel chromosome level expression profiling as well as microarray expression analyses (Affymetrix U133 plus 2.0) was also done. Unsupervised cluster analysis showed that a profile containing transcriptional data on 373 genes (difference of z3.0-fold) is suitable for distinguishing these tumors from seminomas/ dysgerminomas. The diagnostic markers SSX2-4 and POU5F1 (OCT3/OCT4), previously identified by us, were among the top discriminatory genes, thereby validating the experimental set-up. In addition, novel discriminatory markers suitable for diagnostic purposes were identified, including Deleted in Azospermia (DAZ). Although the seminomas/dysgerminomas were characterized by expression of stem cell-specific genes (e.g., POU5F1, PROM1/CD133, and ZFP42), spermatocytic seminomas expressed multiple cancer testis antigens, including TSP50 and CTCFL (BORIS), as well as genes known to be expressed specifically during prophase meiosis I (TCFL5, CLGN, and LDHc). This is consistent with different cells of origin, the primordial germ cell and primary spermatocyte, respectively. Based on the region of amplification defined on 9p and the associated expression plus confirmatory immunohistochemistry, DMRT1 (a male-specific transcriptional regulator) was identified as a likely candidate gene for involvement in the development of spermatocytic seminomas.

Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is an intractable disease resulting in localized neurodegeneration of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta. Many current therapies of PD can only address the symptoms and not the underlying neurodegeneration of PD. To better understand the pathophysiological condition, researchers continue to seek models that mirror PD’s phenotypic manifestations as closely as possible. Recent advances in the field of cellular reprogramming and personalized medicine now allow for previously unattainable cell therapies and patient-specific modeling of PD using induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). iPSCs can be selectively differentiated into a dopaminergic neuron fate naturally susceptible to neurodegeneration. In iPSC models, unlike other artificially-induced models, endogenous cellular machinery and transcriptional feedback are preserved, a fundamental step in accurately modeling this genetically complex disease. In addition to accurately modeling PD, iPSC lines can also be established with specific genetic risk factors to assess genetic sub-populations’ differing response to treatment. iPS cell lines can then be genetically corrected and subsequently transplanted back into the patient in hopes of re-establishing function. Current techniques focus on iPSCs because they are patient-specific, thereby reducing the risk of immune rejection. The year 2018 marked history as the year that the first human trial for PD iPSC transplantation began in Japan. This form of cell therapy has shown promising results in other model organisms and is currently one of our best options in slowing or even halting the progression of PD. Here, we examine the genetic contributions that have reshaped our understanding of PD, as well as the advantages and applications of iPSCs for modeling disease and personalized therapies.