Aromaticity can be defined by the ability of a molecule to sustain a ring current when placed in a magnetic field. Hückel’s rule states that molecular rings with [4 n +2] π-electrons are aromatic, with an induced magnetisation that opposes the external field inside the ring, whereas those with 4 n π-electrons are antiaromatic, with the opposite magnetisation. This rule reliably predicts the behaviour of small molecules, typically with fewer than 22 π-electrons ( n = 5). It is not clear whether aromaticity has a size limit, or whether Hückel’s rule extends to much larger macrocycles. Here, we present evidence for global aromaticity in porphyrin nanorings with circuits of up to 162 π-electrons ( n = 40); aromaticity is controlled by changing the constitution, oxidation state and conformation. Whenever a ring current is observed, its direction is correctly predicted by Hückel’s rule. The largest ring currents occur when the porphyrins units have fractional oxidation states.

The radical cations of a family of π-conjugated porphyrin arrays have been investigated: linear chains of N = 1–6 porphyrins, a 6-porphyrin nanoring and a 12-porphyrin nanotube. The radical cations were generated in solution by chemical and electrochemical oxidation, and probed by vis–NIR–IR and EPR spectroscopies. The cations exhibit strong NIR bands at ∼1000 nm and 2000–5000 nm, which shift to longer wavelength with increasing oligomer length. Analysis of the NIR and IR spectra indicates that the polaron is delocalized over 2–3 porphyrin units in the linear oligomers. Some of the IR vibrational bands are strongly intensified on oxidation, and Fano-type antiresonances are observed when activated vibrations overlap with electronic transitions. The solution-phase EPR spectra of the radical cations have Gaussian lineshapes with linewidths proportional to N–0.5, demonstrating that at room temperature the spin hops rapidly over the whole chain on the time scale of the hyperfine coupling (ca. 100 ns). Direct measurement of the hyperfine couplings through electron–nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) in frozen solution (80 K) indicates distribution of the spin over 2–3 porphyrin units for all the oligomers, except the 12-porphyrin nanotube, in which the spin is spread over about 4–6 porphyrins. These experimental studies of linear and cyclic cations give a consistent picture, which is supported by DFT calculations and multiparabolic modeling with a reorganization energy of 1400–2000 cm–1 and coupling of 2000 cm–1 for charge transfer between neighboring sites, placing the system in the Robin–Day class III.

We report the template-directed synthesis of a π-conjugated 14-porphyrin nanoball. This structure consists of two intersecting nanorings containing six and 10 porphyrin units. Fluorescence upconversion spectroscopy experiments demonstrate that electronic excitation delocalizes over the whole three-dimensional π system in less than 0.3 ps if the nanoball is bound to its templates or over 2 ps if the nanoball is empty.

Electronic communication between concentric macrocycles with wave functions that extend around their circumferences can lead to remarkable behavior, as illustrated by multiwalled carbon nanotubes and photosynthetic chlorophyll arrays. However, it is difficult to hold one π-conjugated molecular ring inside another. Here, we show that ring-in-ring complexes, consisting of a 6-porphyrin ring locked inside a 12-porphyrin ring, can be assembled by placing different metals in the two rings (zinc and aluminum). A bridging ligand with carboxylate and imidazole binding sites forms spokes between the two rings, resulting in a highly cooperative supramolecular self-assembly process. Excitation is transferred from the inner 6-ring to the outer 12-ring of this Russian doll complex within 40 ps. These complexes lead to a form of template-directed synthesis in which one nanoring promotes formation of a larger concentric homologous ring; here, the effective template is an eight-component noncovalent assembly. Russian doll templating provides a new approach to amplifying the size of a covalent nanostructure.

Aromaticity can be a useful concept for predicting the behavior of excited states. Here we show that π-conjugated porphyrin nanorings exhibit size-dependent excited-state global aromaticity and antiaromaticity for rings containing up to eight porphyrin subunits, although they have no significant global aromaticity in their neutral singlet ground states. Applying Baird’s rule, even rings ([4n] π-electrons) are aromatic in their lowest excited states, whereas the lowest excited states of odd rings ([4n + 2] π-electrons) are antiaromatic. These predictions are borne out by density functional theory (DFT) studies of the nucleus-independent chemical shift (NICS) in the T1 triplet state of each ring, which reveal the critical importance of the triplet delocalization to the emergence of excited-state aromaticity. The singlet excited states (S1) are explored by measurements of the radiative rate and fluorescence peak wavelength, revealing a subtle odd–even alternation as a function of ring size, consistent with symmetry breaking in antiaromatic excited states.

Metal halide perovskite semiconductors have the potential to enable lowcost, flexible, and efficient solar cells for a wide range of applications. Physical vapor deposition by co-evaporation of precursors is a method that results in very smooth and pinhole-free perovskite thin films and allows excellent control over film thickness and composition. However, for a deposition method to become industrially scalable, reproducible process control and high device yields are essential. Unfortunately, to date, the control and reproducibility of evaporating organic precursors such as methylammonium iodide (MAI) have proved extremely challenging. We show that the established method of controlling the evaporation rate of MAI with quartz microbalances (QMBs) is critically sensitive to the concentration of the impurities MAH 2 PO 3 and MAH 2 PO 2 that are usually present in MAI after synthesis. Therefore, controlling the deposition rate of MAI with QMBs is unreliable since the concentration of such impurities typically varies from one batch of MAI to another and even during the course of a deposition. However once reliable control of MAI deposition is achieved, we find that the presence of precursor impurities during perovskite deposition does not degrade the solar cell performance. Our results indicate that as long as precursor deposition rates are well controlled, physical vapor deposition will allow high solar cell device yields even if the purity of precursors changes from one run to another.

<div><p>Aromaticity is an important concept for predicting electronic delocalisation in molecules, particularly for designing organic semiconductors and single-molecule electronic devices. It is most simply defined by the ability of a cyclic molecule to sustain a ring current when placed in a magnetic field. Hückel’s rule states that if a ring has [4n+2] π-electrons, it will be aromatic with an induced magnetisation that opposes the external field inside the ring, whereas if it has 4n π-electrons, it will be antiaromatic with the opposite magnetisation. This rule reliably predicts the behaviour of small molecules, typically with circuits of less than about 22 π-electrons (n = 5). It is not clear whether aromaticity has a size limit and whether Hückel’s rule is valid in much larger macrocycles. Here, we present evidence for global aromaticity in a wide variety of porphyrin nanorings, with circuits of up to 162 π-electrons (n = 40; diameter 5 nm). We show that aromaticity can be controlled by changing the molecular structure, oxidation state and three-dimensional conformation. Whenever a global ring current is observed, its direction is correctly predicted by Hückel’s rule. The magnitude of the current is maximised when the average oxidation state of the porphyrin units is around 0.5–0.7, when the system starts to resemble a conductor with a partially filled valence band. Our results show that aromaticity can arise in large macrocycles, bridging the size gap between ring currents in molecular and mesoscopic rings.</p></div>

Most macrocycles are made from a simple repeat unit, resulting in high symmetry. Breaking this symmetry allows fine-tuning of the circumference, providing better control of the host–guest behavior and electronic structure. Here, we present the template-directed synthesis of two unsymmetrical cyclic porphyrin hexamers with both ethyne (C2) and butadiyne (C4) links, and we compare these nanorings with the symmetrical analogues with six ethyne or six butadiyne links. Inserting two extra carbon atoms into the smaller nanoring causes a spectacular change in binding behavior: the template affinity increases by a factor of 3 × 109, to a value of ca. 1038 M–1, and the mean effective molarity is ca. 830 M. In contrast, removing two carbon atoms from the largest nanoring results in almost no change in its template-affinity. The strain in these nanorings is 90–130 kJ mol–1, as estimated both from DFT calculation of homodesmotic reactions and from comparing template affinities of linear and cyclic oligomers. Breaking the symmetry has little effect on the absorption and fluorescence behavior of the nanorings: the low radiative rates that are characteristic of a circular delocalized S1 excited state are preserved in the low-symmetry macrocycles.