Steroids are used as faecal markers in environmental and in archaeological studies, because they provide insights into ancient agricultural practices and the former presence of animals. Up to now, steroid analyses could only identify and distinguish between herbivore, pig, and human faecal matter and their residues in soils and sediments. We hypothesized that a finer differentiation between faeces of different livestock animals could be achieved when the analyses of several steroids is combined (Δ5-sterols, 5α-stanols, 5β-stanols, epi-5β-stanols, stanones, and bile acids). We therefore reviewed the existing literature on various faecal steroids from livestock and humans and analysed faeces from old livestock breed (cattle, horse, donkey, sheep, goat, goose, and pig) and humans. Additionally, we performed steroid analyses on soil material of four different archaeological periods (sites located in the Lower Rhine Basin, Western Germany, dating to the Linearbandkeramik, Urnfield Period / Bronze Age, Iron Age, Roman Age) with known or supposed faecal inputs. By means of already established and newly applied steroid ratios of the analysed faeces together with results from the literature, all considered livestock faeces, except sheep and cattle, could be distinguished on the basis of their steroid signatures. Most remarkably was the identification of horse faeces (via the ratio: epi-5β-stigmastanol: 5β-stigmastanol + epicoprostanol: coprostanol; together with the presence of chenodeoxycholic acid) and a successful differentiation between goat (with chenodeoxycholic acid) and sheep/cattle faeces (without chenodeoxycholic acid). The steroid analysis of archaeological soil material confirmed the supposed faecal inputs, even if these inputs had occurred several thousand years ago.

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Since Dokuchaev's investigations of Russian Chernozems, Central European Chernozems were established as steppe soils, with their pedogenesis dominated by humus accumulation as a result of dry continental climate and steppe vegetation, with carbonaceous parent material and bioturbation as other prerequisites. The WRB-FAO classification defined Chernozems by their morphological characteristics, but was biased by the climo-genetic formation model. However, the assumption that modern Central European Chernozems are relics of steppe soils conflicts with palaeobotanical evidence from an early reforestation that started in the Late Glacial, and also with pedological studies that dated Chernozem formation to the Early Holocene. In this review we compile the most important literature on pedogenesis of Central European Chernozems since the 1920s, according to the soil forming factors climate, time, vegetation, relief and man. Our review demonstrates that there is no consensus on the factors controlling the formation, conservation and degradation of Central European Chernozems in published literature. We found that (1) no absolute time of formation could be stated so far, and that (2) Central European Chernozems formed not only under steppe but also under forest vegetation; (3) the spatial distribution of Chernozems and Phaeozems did not correlate with climate conditions or topographic position, and (4) until now no other factors were considered to be responsible for Chernozem development. Recent studies showed that these unknown factors could include anthropogenic activity and vegetation burning as they could form black soils or strongly affect the composition of soil organic matter. We concluded that not all soils classified as Chernozems in Central Europe are steppe soils and thus, as they do not necessarily reflect past climate, the classification may be misleading. Pedogenesis of Chernozems inCentral Europe -A review Eileen Eckmeier a AbstractSince Dokuchaev's investigations of Russian Chernozems, Central European Chernozems were established as steppe soils, with their pedogenesis dominated by humus accumulation as a result of dry continental climate and steppe vegetation, with carbonaceous parent material and bioturbation as other prerequisites. The WRB-FAO classification defined Chernozems by their morphological characteristics, but was biased by the climo-genetic formation model. However, the assumption that modern Central European Chernozems are relics of steppe soils conflicts with palaeobotanical evidence from an early reforestation that started in the Late Glacial, and also with pedological studies that dated Chernozem formation to the Early Holocene.In this review we compile the most important literature on pedogenesis of Central European Chernozems since the 1920s, according to the soil forming factors climate, time, vegetation, relief and man.Our review demonstrates that there is no consensus on the factors controlling the formation, conservation and degradation of Central European Chernozems in pub...

Anthropogenic burning, including slash-and-burn, was deliberately used in (pre)historic Central Europe. Biomass burning has affected the global carbon cycle since, presumably, the early Holocene. The understanding of processes and rates of charcoal formation in temperate deciduous forests is limited, as is the extent of prehistoric human impact on the environment. We took advantage of an experimental burning to simulate Neolithic slash-and-burn, and we quantified the biomass fuel and charcoal produced, determined the resulting distribution of the charcoal size fractions and calculated the carbon mass balance. Two-thirds of the charcoal particles (6.71 t/ha) were larger than 2000 μm and the spatial distribution of charcoal was highly variable (15—90% per m2). The conversion rate of the biomass fuel to charcoal mass was 4.8%, or 8.1% for the conversion of biomass carbon to charcoal carbon, and 58.4 t C/ha was lost during the fire, presumably as a component of aerosols or gases.