Local extinction and recolonization events can shape genetic structure of subdivided animal populations. The gray wolf (Canis lupus) was extirpated from most of Europe, but recently recolonized big part of its historical range. An exceptionally dynamic expansion of wolf population is observed in the western part of the Great European Plain. Nonetheless, genetic consequences of this process have not yet been fully understood. We aimed to assess genetic diversity of this recently established wolf population in Western Poland (WPL), determine its origin and provide novel data regarding the population genetic structure of the grey wolf in Central Europe. We utilized both spatially explicit and non-explicit Bayesian clustering approaches, as well as a model-independent, multivariate method DAPC, to infer genetic structure in large dataset (881 identified individuals) of wolf microsatellite genotypes. To put the patterns observed in studied population into a broader biogeographic context we also analyzed a mtDNA control region fragment widely used in previous studies. In comparison to a source population, we found slightly reduced allelic richness and heterozygosity in the newly recolonized areas west of the Vistula river. We discovered relatively strong west-east structuring in lowland wolves, probably reflecting founder-flush and allele surfing during range expansion, resulting in clear distinction of WPL, eastern lowland and Carpathian genetic groups. Interestingly, wolves from recently recolonized mountainous areas (Sudetes Mts, SW Poland) clustered together with lowland, but not Carpathian wolf populations. We also identified an area in Central Poland that seems to be a melting pot of western, lowland eastern and Carpathian wolves. We conclude that the process of dynamic recolonization of Central European lowlands lead to the formation of a new, genetically distinct wolf population. Together with the settlement and establishment of packs in mountains by lowland wolves and vice versa, it suggests that demographic dynamics and possibly anthropogenic barriers rather than ecological factors (e.g. natal habitat-biased dispersal patterns) shape the current wolf genetic structure in Central Europe.

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The roe deer is the most numerous large wild herbivore in Europe and Lithuania. In Lithuania, roe deer population is continuously increasing and consists of more than 115000 individuals. The diverse landscape of the country causes differentiation of roe deer into two ecotypes: regular forest ecotype and field ecotype -as ecological forms adapted to specific environmental conditions. Classification of Roe deer into ecotypes was started in 1960s, unfortunately based on low scientific evidence. We have studied roe deer variation among ecotypes in morphological traits and DNA markers: skull traits, roebuck antler trophic value comparison and nuclear microsatellite polymorphism at five loci. Totally, 603 roe deer skulls and 228 roebuck antlers, also 79 individuals for the DNA study were sampled at different parts of the country. The ANOVA ad AMOVA analyses were carried for each age class and sex separately. The results showed that only few morphological skull traits at particular age classes showed significant differences among ecotypes. However, there were significant differences among ecotypes in the roebuck anther trophic value. We have not found significant genetic differences among ecotypes based on AMOVA. These findings suggest that the ecotypes are closely related owing to evolutionary recent separation from the common ancestor and geneflow among the ecotypes and have not reached the level of subspecies.

The paper presents experimental studies of different techniques (measurements directly in the sample plots and remote measurements, such as high-resolution satellite images or images made by a quadcopter drone) for estimation of damage, made by wild ungulates in agricultural fields. The practical experience gained during the research was analysed. It has been found that for the assessment of the damage caused by wild ungulates, the most suitable layout of sample plots is systematic, covering the whole area evenly. When the sample plots covered 0.2% of the total surveyed area, the error of the estimated wildlife damage was in a range of ±3.8%; when the sample plots covered 0.3% of the total surveyed area, the error of the estimated wildlife damage was in a range of ±2.1%. The measurements of 10 sample plots in loco took 33–40 min, with a team of three assessors. Evaluation works done with a quadcopter drone are faster (10 ha field shot in 20 min and analysis of data in 40 min) and require only one specialist to operate the drone. It was proved that high-resolution satellite images, done in Sentinel missions, are not suitable for estimation of damage, made by wild ungulates in agricultural fields.

Since wolves cause substantial damage to livestock, farmers demand that the wolf population be reduced. Environmental non-governmental organisations are opposed to this idea, therefore social tensions in the society are rising. The patterns of damage done to livestock were investigated by using data registered in the Biological Diversity Database (BDD) of the State Service for Protected Areas under the Ministry of Environment in the period from 1 January 2019 to 1 December 2021. Wolf diet was analysed by examining the stomach content of hunted wolves and the content of collected scats (n = 132). During the analysed period, 1139 cases of wolves attacking livestock were submitted to the BDD. Twenty-eight cases of wolves attacking dogs were submitted to BDD from 1 January 2019 to 1 December 2021. A total of 1167 animals were killed in 2019; 1279 animals were killed in 2020, and 875 animals were killed in 2021 (before 1 December). During the three years analysed, wolves most frequently attacked sheep (60.1–67.4% of cases annually). In accordance with the data gathered from analyses of the contents of wolves’ stomach and scats, remains of domestic animal were found in 6.82% of all samples.