In order to identify a perceptually valid measure of rhythm complexity, we used five measures from information theory and algorithmic complexity to measure the complexity of 48 artificially generated rhythmic sequences. We compared these measurements to human implicit and explicit complexity judgments obtained from a listening experiment, in which 32 participants guessed the last beat of each sequence. We also investigated the modulating effects of musical expertise and general pattern identification ability. Entropy rate was correlated with implicit and explicit judgments, Kolmogorov complexity was highly correlated with explicit judgments, and scores on the implicit task were correlated with selfassessed musical perceptual abilities. A logistic regression showed main effects of entropy rate and musical training, and an interaction between entropy rate and musical training. These results indicate that information-theoretic concepts capture some salient features of human rhythm perception, and confirm the influence of musical expertise in the perception of rhythm complexity.
Chills are a psychophysiological response which can be experienced when listening to music. They have been of particular interest in scientific research on music because of their association with emotion and pleasure. However, with the literature doubling in size since the last review on the subject, it has become increasingly difficult to gain a broad and integrated understanding of the empirical and theoretical research on musicevoked chills (MECs). Notably, crucial questions remain about the criteria that are necessary and sufficient to characterise MECs. In this article, we systematically review the literature on MECs in order to reconcile diverging opinions and empirical findings on their psychological nature, and to develop a preliminary model that provides a robust framework for future hypothesis-driven research. We explore the context behind current research on MECs, discuss how they relate to emotional and aesthetic responses, assess current empirical measures and paradigms, summarise their physiological and neural correlates, categorise their possible stimulusdriven elicitors, examine how they are affected by individual differences, and evaluate theoretical perspectives about their potential evolutionary causes. We conclude by providing a preliminary model of MECs that suggests different pathways for the experience of MECs, a dataset listing pieces of music reported to elicit MECs in the reviewed literature, and a set of open issues, hypotheses, and recommended approaches for future research.
Chills experienced in response to music listening have been linked to both happiness and sadness expressed by music. To investigate these conflicting effects of valence on chills, we conducted a computational analysis on a corpus of 988 tracks previously reported to elicit chills, by comparing them with a control set of tracks matched by artist, duration, and popularity. We analysed track-level audio features obtained with the Spotify Web API across the two sets of tracks, resulting in confirmatory findings that tracks which cause chills were sadder than matched tracks and exploratory findings that they were also slower, less intense, and more instrumental than matched tracks on average. We also found that the audio characteristics of chills tracks were related to the direction and magnitude of the difference in valence between the two sets of tracks. We discuss these results in light of the current literature on valence and chills in music, provide a new interpretation in terms of personality correlates of musical preference, and review the advantages and limitations of our computational approach.
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