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In recent years, private individual giving has gained much importance as a source of support for non-profit organisations (NPOs). Most academics consider psychographic criteria as the basis for segmenting and targeting donors. In marketing practice, however, fundraisers are often confined to socio-demographic data on their target groups. This article suggests certain socio-demographic characteristics, when combined with behavioural aspects, can be traced back to fundamental dimensions that represent efficient criteria for potential donor segmentation. The authors conducted an investigation in Austria to find which individuals (as defined by age, gender and social class) donate what amounts, how frequently, to which organisations, and in which forms. Reviewing the data and their statistical results in a succeeding interpretative process, they were able to deduce three basic conditions under which individuals are particularly prone to donate: (1) when the purpose of the NPO pertains to the individual's sphere; (2) when the individual might benefit from the services of an organisation; (3) when the donation does not represent overmuch expense and/or effort. These conditions are proposed as dimensions for selecting and targeting specific donor-segments, allowing NPOs to increase their fundraising efficiency through easy-to-get socio-demographic data.

Purpose -The purpose of this study is to understand the occurrence, formation and magnitude of negative effects for sponsors of rival sports teams and to identify means to counteract negative sponsorship effects. Design/methodology/approach -Surveys measure fans' identification with their team as well as attitudes toward rival teams and their sponsors in a soccer context. An experiment introduces sponsorship communication activities that aim at mitigating negative sponsorship effects by shifting the focus of the sponsorship. Findings -Results from surveys and experiments demonstrate that identification with a sports team negatively affects perceptions of a rival team, negative perceptions of a rival team negatively affect perceptions of its sponsors, this effect is stronger for fans with higher levels of team identification, companies can improve perceptions of rival team sponsors by shifting the focus of sponsorship-linked communication activities, but attenuating negative sponsorship effects is more difficult to achieve for fans with higher levels of identification with their team. Research limitations/implications -Further studies need to disentangle mitigating effects of framing sponsorship communication and investigate in greater depth conditions under which sponsorship leverage can emphasize specific social identities of sports fans and enhance the inclusiveness of fans' self-categorization. Practical implications -Companies can learn from this study how they can frame, design and use sponsorship communication activities to mitigate negative sponsorship effects in the context of rival-team sponsorship. Originality/value -The study is one of the few studies addressing negative effects of sponsorship. In particular, the study provides first insights into how social identity theory, social categorization theory and framing theory work together with theories of image transfer in both the formation and the attenuation of negative sponsorship outcomes.

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