Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a novel coronavirus that is responsible for the 2019-2020 pandemic. In this comprehensive review, we discuss the current published literature surrounding the SARS-CoV-2 virus. We examine the fundamental concepts including the origin, virology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, laboratory, radiology, and histopathologic findings, complications, and treatment. Given that much of the information has been extrapolated from what we know about other coronaviruses including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), we identify and provide insight into controversies and research gaps for the current pandemic to assist with future research ideas. Finally, we discuss the global response to the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and provide thoughts regarding lessons for future pandemics.

Multiple cornerstones have shaped the history of vaccines, which may contain live-attenuated viruses, inactivated organisms/viruses, inactivated toxins, or merely segments of the pathogen that could elicit an immune response. The story began with Hippocrates 400 B.C. with his description of mumps and diphtheria. No further discoveries were recorded until 1100 A.D. when the smallpox vaccine was described. During the eighteenth century, vaccines for cholera and yellow fever were reported and Edward Jenner, the father of vaccination and immunology, published his work on smallpox. The nineteenth century was a major landmark, with the “Germ Theory of disease” of Louis Pasteur, the discovery of the germ tubercle bacillus for tuberculosis by Robert Koch, and the isolation of pneumococcus organism by George Miller Sternberg. Another landmark was the discovery of diphtheria toxin by Emile Roux and its serological treatment by Emil Von Behring and Paul Ehrlih. In addition, Pasteur was able to generate the first live-attenuated viral vaccine against rabies. Typhoid vaccines were then developed, followed by the plague vaccine of Yersin. At the beginning of World War I, the tetanus toxoid was introduced, followed in 1915 by the pertussis vaccine. In 1974, The Expanded Program of Immunization was established within the WHO for bacille Calmette–Guerin, Polio, DTP, measles, yellow fever, and hepatitis B. The year 1996 witnessed the launching of the International AIDS Vaccine Initiative. In 1988, the WHO passed a resolution to eradicate polio by the year 2000 and in 2006; the first vaccine to prevent cervical cancer was developed. In 2010, “The Decade of vaccines” was launched, and on April 1st 2012, the United Nations launched the “shot@Life” campaign. In brief, the armamentarium of vaccines continues to grow with more emphasis on safety, availability, and accessibility. This mini review highlights the major historical events and pioneers in the course of development of vaccines, which have eradicated so many life-threatening diseases, despite the vaccination attitudes and waves appearing through history.

Inflammatory bowel disease is a chronic inflammatory condition that encompasses Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. Inflammatory bowel disease is not exclusive to the gastrointestinal system, as it has been identified to be associated with extraintestinal manifestations that encompass every other organ system in the human body. This review article will comprehensively review the current knowledge on extraintestinal manifestations of inflammatory bowel disease. In addition, it will discuss the recommendations for screening and surveillance for extraintestinal manifestations in these patients since early appropriate diagnosis is imperative in preventing morbidity and cancer development.

The rapid outbreak of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has led to infection with variable clinical presentations and a wide clinical spectrum. The disease was first reported in Wuhan, China in 2019 and has rapidly spread worldwide. Despite reports of dynamic changes in disease progression, clinical predictors of disease severity have been difficult to identify. The following case describing identical twins with laboratory confirmed COVID-19 who had very different disease courses. These patients resided in the same home and shared many of the same comorbidities, including type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension and morbid obesity. Although twin 1 had higher inflammatory markers, white blood cell (WBC) and an arguably more complicated medical history in comparison to their identical twin, the patient experienced a milder and shorter disease course. This case highlights the need for identifying proper disease markers and predictors early in the clinical course in order to direct future management guidelines and timely treatment.

A stroke is a clinical syndrome characterized by a focal neurologic deficit that can be attributed to a vascular territory within the brain. The presenting features of an acute stroke depends on the area of the brain affected. Although unusual, the presenting feature may include psychosis with auditory and/or visual hallucinations. A 56-year-old female was admitted to the psychiatric unit after threatening her husband with a knife. She reported experiencing altered sensorium for one week with suicidal and homicidal command hallucinations. Given the acute onset, brain images were obtained to rule out an organic etiology. A brain MRI revealed an acute right occipital lobe infarct with hemorrhagic transformation. The patient's symptoms were self-limited, resolving without antipsychotic medications. Psychosis with auditory hallucinations is not commonly reported following stroke. Since histologic and functional alterations in the occipital lobe appear to play a significant role in psychosis of schizophrenics, it is likely that ischemia in the same area may cause similar changes. Familiarity with this rare presentation is important, as it prevents a delay in diagnosis, which may negatively impact the outcome.